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<P><SPAN>You are here</SPAN><A =
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Treason, No. 1</A> / <A href=3D"http://lysanderspooner.org/node/63">No =
Treason,=20
No. 2</A> / No Treason, No. 6</P></DIV>
<H1>No Treason, No. 6</H1>
<DIV class=3Ddrdot>
<HR>
</DIV>
<DIV class=3Dnode>
<DIV class=3Dmetanode>
<P>By <SPAN class=3Dauthor>rbarnett</SPAN> - Posted on <SPAN =
class=3Ddate>04 August=20
2009</SPAN></P></DIV>
<DIV class=3Dcontent>
<P>
<DIV align=3Dcenter><STRONG>NO TREASON</STRONG></DIV>
<P></P>
<P>
<DIV align=3Dcenter><STRONG>NO. VI.</STRONG></DIV>
<P></P>
<P>
<DIV align=3Dcenter><STRONG>THE CONSTITUTION OF NO =
AUTHORITY</STRONG></DIV>
<P></P>
<P>I.</P>
<P>The Constitution has no inherent authority or obligation. It has no =
authority=20
or obligation at all, unless as a contract between man and man. And it =
does not=20
so much as even purport to be a contract between persons now existing. =
It=20
purports, at most, to be only a contract between persons living eighty =
years=20
ago. And it can be supposed to have been a contract then only between =
persons=20
who had already come to years of discretion, so as to be competent to =
make=20
reasonable and obligatory contracts. Furthermore, we know, historically, =
that=20
only a small portion even of the people then existing were consulted on =
the=20
subject, or asked, or permitted to express either their consent or =
dissent in=20
any formal manner. Those persons, if any, who did give their consent =
formally,=20
are all dead now. Most of them have been dead forty, fifty, sixty, or =
seventy=20
years. And the constitution, so far as it was their contract, died with =
them.=20
They had no natural power or right to make it obligatory upon their =
children. It=20
is not only plainly impossible, in the nature of things, that they could =
bind=20
their posterity, but they did not even attempt to bind them. That is to =
say, the=20
instrument does not purport to be an agreement between any body but "the =
people"=20
then existing; nor does it, either ex- [*4] pressly or impliedly, assert =
any=20
right, power, or disposition, on their part, to bind anybody but =
themselves. Let=20
us see. Its language is:</P>
<P>"We, the people of the United States (that is, the people then =
existing in=20
the United States), in order to form a more perfect union, insure =
domestic=20
tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general =
welfare, and=20
secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do =
ordain and=20
establish this Constitution for the United States of America."</P>
<P>It is plain, in the first place, that this language, as an agreement, =

purports to be only what it at most really was, viz., a contract between =
the=20
people then existing; and, of necessity, binding, as a contract, only =
upon those=20
then existing. In the second place, the language neither expresses nor =
implies=20
that they had any right or power, to bind their "posterity" to live =
under it. It=20
does not say that their "posterity" will, shall, or must live under it. =
It only=20
says, in effect, that their hopes and motives in adopting it were that =
it might=20
prove useful to their posterity, as well as to themselves, by promoting =
their=20
union, safety, tranquility, liberty, etc.</P>
<P>Suppose an agreement were entered into, in this form:</P>
<P>We, the people of Boston, agree to maintain a fort on Governor's =
Island, to=20
protect ourselves and our posterity against invasion.</P>
<P>This agreement, as an agreement, would clearly bind nobody but the =
people=20
then existing. Secondly, it would assert no right, power, or =
disposition, on=20
their part, to compel, their "posterity" to maintain such a fort. It =
would only=20
indicate that the supposed welfare of their posterity was one of the =
motives=20
that induced the original parties to enter into the agreement.</P>
<P>When a man says he is building a house for himself and his posterity, =
he does=20
not mean to be understood as saying that he has any thought of binding =
them, nor=20
is it to be inferred that he [*5] is so foolish as to imagine that he =
has any=20
right or power to bind them, to live in it. So far as they are =
concerned, he=20
only means to be understood as saying that his hopes and motives, in =
building=20
it, are that they, or at least some of them, may find it for their =
happiness to=20
live in it.</P>
<P>So when a man says he is planting a tree for himself and his =
posterity, he=20
does not mean to be understood as saying that he has any thought of =
compelling=20
them, nor is it to be inferred that he is such a simpleton as to imagine =
that he=20
has any right or power to compel them, to eat the fruit. So far as they =
are=20
concerned, he only means to say that his hopes and motives, in planting =
the=20
tree, are that its fruit may be agreeable to them.</P>
<P>So it was with those who originally adopted the Constitution. =
Whatever may=20
have been their personal intentions, the legal meaning of their =
language, so far=20
as their "posterity" was concerned, simply was, that their hopes and =
motives, in=20
entering into the agreement, were that it might prove useful and =
acceptable to=20
their posterity; that it might promote their union, safety, tranquility, =
and=20
welfare; and that it might tend "to secure to them the blessings of =
liberty."=20
The language does not assert nor at all imply, any right, power, or =
disposition,=20
on the part of the original parties to the agreement, to compel their=20
"posterity" to live under it. If they had intended to bind their =
posterity to=20
live under it, they should have said that their objective was, not "to =
secure to=20
them the blessings of liberty," but to make slaves of them; for if their =

"posterity" are bound to live under it, they are nothing less than the =
slaves of=20
their foolish, tyrannical, and dead grandfathers.</P>
<P>It cannot be said that the Constitution formed "the people of the =
United=20
States," for all time, into a corporation. It does not speak of "the =
people" as=20
a corporation, but as individuals. A corporation does not describe =
itself as=20
"we," nor as "people," nor as "ourselves." Nor does a corporation, in =
legal=20
language, [*6] have any "posterity." It supposes itself to have, and =
speaks of=20
itself as having, perpetual existence, as a single individuality.</P>
<P>Moreover, no body of men, existing at any one time, have the power to =
create=20
a perpetual corporation. A corporation can become practically perpetual =
only by=20
the voluntary accession of new members, as the old ones die off. But for =
this=20
voluntary accession of new members, the corporation necessarily dies =
with the=20
death of those who originally composed it.</P>
<P>Legally speaking, therefore, there is, in the Constitution, nothing =
that=20
professes or attempts to bind the "posterity" of those who establish[ed] =
it.</P>
<P>If, then, those who established the Constitution, had no power to =
bind, and=20
did not attempt to bind, their posterity, the question arises, whether =
their=20
posterity have bound themselves. If they have done so, they can have =
done so in=20
only one or both of these two ways, viz., by voting, and paying =
taxes.</P>
<P>II.</P>
<P>Let us consider these two matters, voting and tax paying, separately. =
And=20
first of voting.</P>
<P>All the voting that has ever taken place under the Constitution, has =
been of=20
such a kind that it not only did not pledge the whole people to support =
the=20
Constitution, but it did not even pledge any one of them to do so, as =
the=20
following considerations show.</P>
<P>1. In the very nature of things, the act of voting could bind nobody =
but the=20
actual voters. But owing to the property qualifications required, it is =
probable=20
that, during the first twenty or thirty years under the Constitution, =
not more=20
than one-tenth, fifteenth, or perhaps twentieth of the whole population =
(black=20
and white, men, women, and minors) were permitted to vote. Consequently, =
so far=20
as voting was concerned, not more than one-tenth, fifteenth, or =
twentieth of=20
those then existing, could have incurred any obligation to support the=20
Constitution. [*7]</P>
<P>At the present time, it is probable that not more than one-sixth of =
the whole=20
population are permitted to vote. Consequently, so far as voting is =
concerned,=20
the other five-sixths can have given no pledge that they will support =
the=20
Constitution.</P>
<P>2. Of the one-sixth that are permitted to vote, probably not more =
than=20
two-thirds (about one-ninth of the whole population) have usually voted. =
Many=20
never vote at all. Many vote only once in two, three, five, or ten =
years, in=20
periods of great excitement.</P>
<P>No one, by voting, can be said to pledge himself for any longer =
period than=20
that for which he votes. If, for example, I vote for an officer who is =
to hold=20
his office for only a year, I cannot be said to have thereby pledged =
myself to=20
support the government beyond that term. Therefore, on the ground of =
actual=20
voting, it probably cannot be said that more than one-ninth or =
one-eighth, of=20
the whole population are usually under any pledge to support the=20
Constitution.</P>
<P>3. It cannot be said that, by voting, a man pledges himself to =
support the=20
Constitution, unless the act of voting be a perfectly voluntary one on =
his part.=20
Yet the act of voting cannot properly be called a voluntary one on the =
part of=20
any very large number of those who do vote. It is rather a measure of =
necessity=20
imposed upon them by others, than one of their own choice. On this point =
I=20
repeat what was said in a former number, <FN1>viz.:</FN1></P>
<P>"In truth, in the case of individuals, their actual voting is not to =
be taken=20
as proof of consent, even for the time being. On the contrary, it is to =
be=20
considered that, without his consent having even been asked a man finds =
himself=20
environed by a government that he cannot resist; a government that =
forces him to=20
pay money, render service, and forego the exercise of many of his =
natural=20
rights, under peril of weighty punishments. He sees, too, that other men =

practice this tyranny over him by the use of the ballot. He sees =
further, that,=20
if he will but use the ballot [*8] himself, he has some chance of =
relieving=20
himself from this tyranny of others, by subjecting them to his own. In =
short, he=20
finds himself, without his consent, so situated that, if he use the =
ballot, he=20
may become a master; if he does not use it, he must become a slave. And =
he has=20
no other alternative than these two. In self-defence, he attempts the =
former.=20
His case is analogous to that of a man who has been forced into battle, =
where he=20
must either kill others, or be killed himself. Because, to save his own =
life in=20
battle, a man takes the lives of his opponents, it is not to be inferred =
that=20
the battle is one of his own choosing. Neither in contests with the =
ballot ---=20
which is a mere substitute for a bullet --- because, as his only chance =
of self-=20
preservation, a man uses a ballot, is it to be inferred that the contest =
is one=20
into which he voluntarily entered; that he voluntarily set up all his =
own=20
natural rights, as a stake against those of others, to be lost or won by =
the=20
mere power of numbers. On the contrary, it is to be considered that, in =
an=20
exigency into which he had been forced by others, and in which no other =
means of=20
self-defence offered, he, as a matter of necessity, used the only one =
that was=20
left to him.</P>
<P>"Doubtless the most miserable of men, under the most oppressive =
government in=20
the world, if allowed the ballot, would use it, if they could see any =
chance of=20
thereby meliorating their condition. But it would not, therefore, be a=20
legitimate inference that the government itself, that crushes them, was =
one=20
which they had voluntarily set up, or even consented to. "Therefore, a =
man's=20
voting under the Constitution of the United States, is not to be taken =
as=20
evidence that he ever freely assented to the Constitution, even for the =
time=20
being. Consequently we have no proof that any very large portion, even =
of the=20
actual voters of the United States, ever really and voluntarily =
consented to the=20
Constitution, even for the time being. Nor can we ever have such proof, =
until=20
every man is left perfectly free to consent, or not, without thereby =
subjecting=20
himself or his property to be disturbed or injured by others."</P>
<P>As we can have no legal knowledge as to who votes from choice, and =
who from=20
the necessity thus forced upon him, we can have no legal knowledge, as =
to any=20
particular individual, that he voted from choice; or, consequently, that =
by=20
voting, he consented, or pledged himself, to support the government. =
Legally=20
[*9] speaking, therefore, the act of voting utterly fails to pledge any =
one to=20
support the government. It utterly fails to prove that the government =
rests upon=20
the voluntary support of anybody. On general principles of law and =
reason, it=20
cannot be said that the government has any voluntary supporters at all, =
until it=20
can be distinctly shown who its voluntary supporters are.</P>
<P>4. As taxation is made compulsory on all, whether they vote or not, a =
large=20
proportion of those who vote, no doubt do so to prevent their own money =
being=20
used against themselves; when, in fact, they would have gladly abstained =
from=20
voting, if they could thereby have saved themselves from taxation alone, =
to say=20
nothing of being saved from all the other usurpations and tyrannies of =
the=20
government. To take a man's property without his consent, and then to =
infer his=20
consent because he attempts, by voting, to prevent that property from =
being used=20
to his injury, is a very insufficient proof of his consent to support =
the=20
Constitution. It is, in fact, no proof at all. And as we can have no =
legal=20
knowledge as to who the particular individuals are, if there are any, =
who are=20
willing to be taxed for the sake of voting, we can have no legal =
knowledge that=20
any particular individual consents to be taxed for the sake of voting; =
or,=20
consequently, consents to support the Constitution.</P>
<P>5. At nearly all elections, votes are given for various candidates =
for the=20
same office. Those who vote for the unsuccessful candidates cannot =
properly be=20
said to have voted to sustain the Constitution. They may, with more =
reason, be=20
supposed to have voted, not to support the Constitution, but specially =
to=20
prevent the tyranny which they anticipate the successful candidate =
intends to=20
practice upon them under color of the Constitution; and therefore may =
reasonably=20
be supposed to have voted against the Constitution itself. This =
supposition is=20
the more reasonable, inasmuch as such voting is the only mode allowed to =
them of=20
expressing their dissent to the Constitution. [*10]</P>
<P>6. Many votes are usually given for candidates who have no prospect =
of=20
success. Those who give such votes may reasonably be supposed to have =
voted as=20
they did, with a special intention, not to support, but to obstruct the=20
execution of, the Constitution; and, therefore, against the Constitution =

itself.</P>
<P>7. As all the different votes are given secretly (by secret ballot), =
there is=20
no legal means of knowing, from the votes themselves, who votes for, and =
who=20
votes against, the Constitution. Therefore, voting affords no legal =
evidence=20
that any particular individual supports the Constitution. And where =
there can be=20
no legal evidence that any particular individual supports the =
Constitution, it=20
cannot legally be said that anybody supports it. It is clearly =
impossible to=20
have any legal proof of the intentions of large numbers of men, where =
there can=20
be no legal proof of the intentions of any particular one of them.</P>
<P>8. There being no legal proof of any man's intentions, in voting, we =
can only=20
conjecture them. As a conjecture, it is probable, that a very large =
proportion=20
of those who vote, do so on this principle, viz., that if, by voting, =
they could=20
but get the government into their own hands (or that of their friends), =
and use=20
its powers against their opponents, they would then willingly support =
the=20
Constitution; but if their opponents are to have the power, and use it =
against=20
them, then they would not willingly support the Constitution.</P>
<P>In short, men's voluntary support of the Constitution is doubtless, =
in most=20
cases, wholly contingent upon the question whether, by means of the=20
Constitution, they can make themselves masters, or are to be made =
slaves.</P>
<P>Such contingent consent as that is, in law and reason, no consent at =
all.</P>
<P>9. As everybody who supports the Constitution by voting (if there are =
any=20
such) does so secretly (by secret ballot), and in a way to avoid all =
personal=20
responsibility for the acts of his agents or representatives, it cannot =
legally=20
or reasonably be [*11] said that anybody at all supports the =
Constitution by=20
voting. No man can reasonably or legally be said to do such a thing as =
assent=20
to, or support, the Constitution, unless he does it openly, and in a way =
to make=20
himself personally responsible for the acts of his agents, so long as =
they act=20
within the limits of the power he delegates to them.</P>
<P>10. As all voting is secret (by secret ballot), and as all secret =
governments=20
are necessarily only secret bands of robbers, tyrants, and murderers, =
the=20
general fact that our government is practically carried on by means of =
such=20
voting, only proves that there is among us a secret band of robbers, =
tyrants,=20
and murderers, whose purpose is to rob, enslave, and, so far as =
necessary to=20
accomplish their purposes, murder, the rest of the people. The simple =
fact of=20
the existence of such a band does nothing towards proving that "the =
people of=20
the United States," or any one of them, voluntarily supports the=20
Constitution.</P>
<P>For all the reasons that have now been given, voting furnishes no =
legal=20
evidence as to who the particular individuals are (if there are any), =
who=20
voluntarily support the Constitution. It therefore furnishes no legal =
evidence=20
that anybody supports it voluntarily.</P>
<P>So far, therefore, as voting is concerned, the Constitution, legally=20
speaking, has no supporters at all.</P>
<P>And, as a matter of fact, there is not the slightest probability that =
the=20
Constitution has a single bona fide supporter in the country. That is to =
say,=20
there is not the slightest probability that there is a single man in the =

country, who both understands what the Constitution really is, and =
sincerely=20
supports it for what it really is.</P>
<P>The ostensible supporters of the Constitution, like the ostensible =
supporters=20
of most other governments, are made up of three classes, viz.: 1. =
Knaves, a=20
numerous and active class, who see in the government an instrument which =
they=20
can use for their own aggrandizement or wealth. 2. Dupes --- a large =
class, no=20
[*12] doubt --- each of whom, because he is allowed one voice out of =
millions in=20
deciding what he may do with his own person and his own property, and =
because he=20
is permitted to have the same voice in robbing, enslaving, and murdering =
others,=20
that others have in robbing, enslaving, and murdering himself, is stupid =
enough=20
to imagine that he is a "free man," a "sovereign"; that this is "a free=20
government"; "a government of equal rights," "the best government on =
earth,"=20
<FN2>and such like absurdities. 3. A class who have some appreciation of =
the=20
evils of government, but either do not see how to get rid of them, or do =
not=20
choose to so far sacrifice their private interests as to give themselves =

seriously and earnestly to the work of making a change.</FN2></P>
<P>III.</P>
<P>The payment of taxes, being compulsory, of course furnishes no =
evidence that=20
any one voluntarily supports the Constitution.</P>
<P>1. It is true that the theory of our Constitution is, that all taxes =
are paid=20
voluntarily; that our government is a mutual insurance company, =
voluntarily=20
entered into by the people with each other; that that each man makes a =
free and=20
purely voluntary contract with all others who are parties to the =
Constitution,=20
to pay so much money for so much protection, the same as he does with =
any other=20
insurance company; and that he is just as free not to be protected, and =
not to=20
pay tax, as he is to pay a tax, and be protected.</P>
<P>But this theory of our government is wholly different from the =
practical=20
fact. The fact is that the government, like a highwayman, says to a man: =
Your=20
money, or your life." And many, if not most, taxes are paid under the =
compulsion=20
of that threat.</P>
<P>The government does not, indeed, waylay a man in a lonely place, =
spring upon=20
him from the roadside, and, holding a pistol [*13] to his head, proceed =
to rifle=20
his pockets. But the robbery is none the less a robbery on that account; =
and it=20
is far more dastardly and shameful.</P>
<P>The highwayman takes solely upon himself the responsibility, danger, =
and=20
crime of his own act. He does not pretend that he has any rightful claim =
to your=20
money, or that he intends to use it for your own benefit. He does not =
pretend to=20
be anything but a robber. He has not acquired impudence enough to =
profess to be=20
merely a "protector," and that he takes men's money against their will, =
merely=20
to enable him to "protect" those infatuated travellers, who feel =
perfectly able=20
to protect themselves, or do not appreciate his peculiar system of =
protection.=20
He is too sensible a man to make such professions as these. Furthermore, =
having=20
taken your money, he leaves you, as you wish him to do. He does not =
persist in=20
following you on the road, against your will; assuming to be your =
rightful=20
"sovereign," on account of the "protection" he affords you. He does not =
keep=20
"protecting" you, by commanding you to bow down and serve him; by =
requiring you=20
to do this, and forbidding you to do that; by robbing you of more money =
as often=20
as he finds it for his interest or pleasure to do so; and by branding =
you as a=20
rebel, a traitor, and an enemy to your country, and shooting you down =
without=20
mercy, if you dispute his authority, or resist his demands. He is too =
much of a=20
gentleman to be guilty of such impostures, and insults, and villanies as =
these.=20
In short, he does not, in addition to robbing you, attempt to make you =
either=20
his dupe or his slave.</P>
<P>The proceedings of those robbers and murderers, who call themselves =
"the=20
government," are directly the opposite of these of the single =
highwayman.</P>
<P>In the first place, they do not, like him, make themselves =
individually=20
known; or, consequently, take upon themselves personally the =
responsibility of=20
their acts. On the contrary, they secretly (by secret ballot) designate =
some one=20
of their number [*14] to commit the robbery in their behalf, while they =
keep=20
themselves practically concealed. They say to the person thus =
designated:</P>
<P>Go to A_____ B_____, and say to him that "the government" has need of =
money=20
to meet the expenses of protecting him and his property. If he presumes =
to say=20
that he has never contracted with us to protect him, and that he wants =
none of=20
our protection, say to him that that is our business, and not his; that =
we=20
choose to protect him, whether he desires us to do so or not; and that =
we demand=20
pay, too, for protecting him. If he dares to inquire who the individuals =
are,=20
who have thus taken upon themselves the title of "the government," and =
who=20
assume to protect him, and demand payment of him, without his having =
ever made=20
any contract with them, say to him that that, too, is our business, and =
not his;=20
that we do not choose to make ourselves individually known to him; that =
we have=20
secretly (by secret ballot) appointed you our agent to give him notice =
of our=20
demands, and, if he complies with them, to give him, in our name, a =
receipt that=20
will protect him against any similar demand for the present year. If he =
refuses=20
to comply, seize and sell enough of his property to pay not only our =
demands,=20
but all your own expenses and trouble beside. If he resists the seizure =
of his=20
property, call upon the bystanders to help you (doubtless some of them =
will=20
prove to be members of our band.) If, in defending his property, he =
should kill=20
any of our band who are assisting you, capture him at all hazards; =
charge him=20
(in one of our courts) with murder; convict him, and hang him. If he =
should call=20
upon his neighbors, or any others who, like him, may be disposed to =
resist our=20
demands, and they should come in large numbers to his assistance, cry =
out that=20
they are all rebels and traitors; that "our country" is in danger; call =
upon the=20
commander of our hired murderers; tell him to quell the rebellion and =
"save the=20
country," cost what it may. Tell him to kill all who resist, though they =
should=20
be hundreds of thou- [*15] sands; and thus strike terror into all others =

similarly disposed. See that the work of murder is thoroughly done; that =
we may=20
have no further trouble of this kind hereafter. When these traitors =
shall have=20
thus been taught our strength and our determination, they will be good =
loyal=20
citizens for many years, and pay their taxes without a why or a =
wherefore.</P>
<P>It is under such compulsion as this that taxes, so called, are paid. =
And how=20
much proof the payment of taxes affords, that the people consent to =
"support the=20
government," it needs no further argument to show.</P>
<P>2. Still another reason why the payment of taxes implies no consent, =
or=20
pledge, to support the government, is that the taxpayer does not know, =
and has=20
no means of knowing, who the particular individuals are who compose "the =

government." To him "the government" is a myth, an abstraction, an=20
incorporeality, with which he can make no contract, and to which he can =
give no=20
consent, and make no pledge. He knows it only through its pretended =
agents. "The=20
government" itself he never sees. He knows indeed, by common report, =
that=20
certain persons, of a certain age, are permitted to vote; and thus to =
make=20
themselves parts of, or (if they choose) opponents of, the government, =
for the=20
time being. But who of them do thus vote, and especially how each one =
votes=20
(whether so as to aid or oppose the government), he does not know; the =
voting=20
being all done secretly (by secret ballot). Who, therefore, practically =
compose=20
"the government," for the time being, he has no means of knowing. Of =
course he=20
can make no contract with them, give them no consent, and make them no =
pledge.=20
Of necessity, therefore, his paying taxes to them implies, on his part, =
no=20
contract, consent, or pledge to support them --- that is, to support =
"the=20
government," or the Constitution.</P>
<P>3. Not knowing who the particular individuals are, who call =
themselves "the=20
government," the taxpayer does not know whom he pays his taxes to. All =
he knows=20
is that a man comes to [*16] him, representing himself to be the agent =
of "the=20
government" --- that is, the agent of a secret band of robbers and =
murderers,=20
who have taken to themselves the title of "the government," and have =
determined=20
to kill everybody who refuses to give them whatever money they demand. =
To save=20
his life, he gives up his money to this agent. But as this agent does =
not make=20
his principals individually known to the taxpayer, the latter, after he =
has=20
given up his money, knows no more who are "the government" --- that is, =
who were=20
the robbers --- than he did before. To say, therefore, that by giving up =
his=20
money to their agent, he entered into a voluntary contract with them, =
that he=20
pledges himself to obey them, to support them, and to give them whatever =
money=20
they should demand of him in the future, is simply ridiculous.</P>
<P>4. All political power, so called, rests practically upon this matter =
of=20
money. Any number of scoundrels, having money enough to start with, can=20
establish themselves as a "government"; because, with money, they can =
hire=20
soldiers, and with soldiers extort more money; and also compel general =
obedience=20
to their will. It is with government, as Caesar said it was in war, that =
money=20
and soldiers mutually supported each other; that with money he could =
hire=20
soldiers, and with soldiers extort money. So these villains, who call =
themselves=20
governments, well understand that their power rests primarily upon =
money. With=20
money they can hire soldiers, and with soldiers extort money. And, when =
their=20
authority is denied, the first use they always make of money, is to hire =

soldiers to kill or subdue all who refuse them more money.</P>
<P>For this reason, whoever desires liberty, should understand these =
vital=20
facts, viz.: 1. That every man who puts money into the hands of a =
"government"=20
(so called), puts into its hands a sword which will be used against him, =
to=20
extort more money from him, and also to keep him in subjection to its =
arbitrary=20
will. 2. That those who will take his money, without his con- [*17] =
sent, in the=20
first place, will use it for his further robbery and enslavement, if he =
presumes=20
to resist their demands in the future. 3. That it is a perfect absurdity =
to=20
suppose that any body of men would ever take a man's money without his =
consent,=20
for any such object as they profess to take it for, viz., that of =
protecting=20
him; for why should they wish to protect him, if he does not wish them =
to do so?=20
To suppose that they would do so, is just as absurd as it would be to =
suppose=20
that they would take his money without his consent, for the purpose of =
buying=20
food or clothing for him, when he did not want it. 4. If a man wants=20
"protection," he is competent to make his own bargains for it; and =
nobody has=20
any occasion to rob him, in order to "protect" him against his will. 5. =
That the=20
only security men can have for their political liberty, consists in =
their=20
keeping their money in their own pockets, until they have assurances, =
perfectly=20
satisfactory to themselves, that it will be used as they wish it to be =
used, for=20
their benefit, and not for their injury. 6. That no government, so =
called, can=20
reasonably be trusted for a moment, or reasonably be supposed to have =
honest=20
purposes in view, any longer than it depends wholly upon voluntary =
support.</P>
<P>These facts are all so vital and so self-evident, that it cannot =
reasonably=20
be supposed that any one will voluntarily pay money to a "government," =
for the=20
purpose of securing its protection, unless he first make an explicit and =
purely=20
voluntary contract with it for that purpose.</P>
<P>It is perfectly evident, therefore, that neither such voting, nor =
such=20
payment of taxes, as actually takes place, proves anybody's consent, or=20
obligation, to support the Constitution. Consequently we have no =
evidence at all=20
that the Constitution is binding upon anybody, or that anybody is under =
any=20
contract or obligation whatever to support it. And nobody is under any=20
obligation to support it. [*18]</P>
<P>IV.</P>
<P>The constitution not only binds nobody now, but it never did bind =
anybody. It=20
never bound anybody, because it was never agreed to by anybody in such a =
manner=20
as to make it, on general principles of law and reason, binding upon =
him.</P>
<P>It is a general principle of law and reason, that a written =
instrument binds=20
no one until he has signed it. This principle is so inflexible a one, =
that even=20
though a man is unable to write his name, he must still "make his mark," =
before=20
he is bound by a written contract. This custom was established ages ago, =
when=20
few men could write their names; when a clerk --- that is, a man who =
could write=20
--- was so rare and valuable a person, that even if he were guilty of =
high=20
crimes, he was entitled to pardon, on the ground that the public could =
not=20
afford to lose his services. Even at that time, a written contract must =
be=20
signed; and men who could not write, either "made their mark," or signed =
their=20
contracts by stamping their seals upon wax affixed to the parchment on =
which=20
their contracts were written. Hence the custom of affixing seals, that =
has=20
continued to this time.</P>
<P>The laws holds, and reason declares, that if a written instrument is =
not=20
signed, the presumption must be that the party to be bound by it, did =
not choose=20
to sign it, or to bind himself by it. And law and reason both give him =
until the=20
last moment, in which to decide whether he will sign it, or not. Neither =
law nor=20
reason requires or expects a man to agree to an instrument, until it is =
written;=20
for until it is written, he cannot know its precise legal meaning. And =
when it=20
is written, and he has had the opportunity to satisfy himself of its =
precise=20
legal meaning, he is then expected to decide, and not before, whether he =
will=20
agree to it or not. And if he do not then sign it, his reason is =
supposed to be,=20
that he does not choose to enter into such a contract. The fact that the =

instrument was written for him to sign, or with the hope that he would =
sign it,=20
goes for nothing. [*19]</P>
<P>Where would be the end of fraud and litigation, if one party could =
bring into=20
court a written instrument, without any signature, and claim to have it=20
enforced, upon the ground that it was written for another man to sign? =
that this=20
other man had promised to sign it? that he ought to have signed it? that =
he had=20
had the opportunity to sign it, if he would? but that he had refused or=20
neglected to do so? Yet that is the most that could ever be said of the=20
Constitution. <FN3>The very judges, who profess to derive all their =
authority=20
from the Constitution --- from an instrument that nobody ever signed --- =
would=20
spurn any other instrument, not signed, that should be brought before =
them for=20
adjudication.</FN3></P>
<P>Moreover, a written instrument must, in law and reason, not only be =
signed,=20
but must also be delivered to the party (or to some one for him), in =
whose favor=20
it is made, before it can bind the party making it. The signing is of no =
effect,=20
unless the instrument be also delivered. And a party is at perfect =
liberty to=20
refuse to deliver a written instrument, after he has signed it. The =
Constitution=20
was not only never signed by anybody, but it was never delivered by =
anybody, or=20
to anybody's agent or attorney. It can therefore be of no more validity =
as a=20
contract, then can any other instrument that was never signed or =
delivered.</P>
<P>V.</P>
<P>As further evidence of the general sense of mankind, as to the =
practical=20
necessity there is that all men's important contracts, especially those =
of a=20
permanent nature, should be both written and signed, the following facts =
are=20
pertinent. [*20]</P>
<P>For nearly two hundred years --- that is, since 1677 --- there has =
been on=20
the statute book of England, and the same, in substance, if not =
precisely in=20
letter, has been re-enacted, and is now in force, in nearly or quite all =
the=20
States of this Union, a statute, the general object of which is to =
declare that=20
no action shall be brought to enforce contracts of the more important =
class,=20
unless they are put in writing, and signed by the parties to be held =
chargeable=20
upon them. <FN4></FN4></P>
<P>The principle of the statute, be it observed, is, not merely that =
written=20
contracts shall be signed, but also that all con- [*21] tracts, except =
for those=20
specially exempted --- generally those that are for small amounts, and =
are to=20
remain in force for but a short time --- shall be both written and =
signed.</P>
<P>The reason of the statute, on this point, is, that it is now so easy =
a thing=20
for men to put their contracts in writing, and sign them, and their =
failure to=20
do so opens the door to so much doubt, fraud, and litigation, that men =
who=20
neglect to have their contracts --- of any considerable importance --- =
written=20
and signed, ought not to have the benefit of courts of justice to =
enforce them.=20
And this reason is a wise one; and that experience has confirmed its =
wisdom and=20
necessity, is demonstrated by the fact that it has been acted upon in =
England=20
for nearly two hundred years, and has been so nearly universally adopted =
in this=20
country, and that nobody thinks of repealing it.</P>
<P>We all know, too, how careful most men are to have their contracts =
written=20
and signed, even when this statute does not require it. For example, =
most men,=20
if they have money due them, of no larger amount than five or ten =
dollars, are=20
careful to take a note for it. If they buy even a small bill of goods, =
paying=20
for it at the time of delivery, they take a receipted bill for it. If =
they pay a=20
small balance of a book account, or any other small debt previously =
contracted,=20
they take a written receipt for it.</P>
<P>Furthermore, the law everywhere (probably) in our country, as well as =
in=20
England, requires that a large class of contracts, such as wills, deeds, =
etc.,=20
shall not only be written and signed, but also sealed, witnessed, and=20
acknowledged. And in the case of married women conveying their rights in =
real=20
estate, the law, in many States, requires that the women shall be =
examined=20
separate and apart from their husbands, and declare that they sign their =

contracts free of any fear or compulsion of their husbands.</P>
<P>Such are some of the precautions which the laws require, and which=20
individuals --- from motives of common prudence, even in cases not =
required by=20
law --- take, to put their contracts in writing, and have them signed, =
and, to=20
guard against all uncertainties [*22] and controversies in regard to =
their=20
meaning and validity. And yet we have what purports, or professes, or is =

claimed, to be a contract --- the Constitution --- made eighty years =
ago, by men=20
who are now all dead, and who never had any power to bind us, but which =
(it is=20
claimed) has nevertheless bound three generations of men, consisting of =
many=20
millions, and which (it is claimed) will be binding upon all the =
millions that=20
are to come; but which nobody ever signed, sealed, delivered, witnessed, =
or=20
acknowledged; and which few persons, compared with the whole number that =
are=20
claimed to be bound by it, have ever read, or even seen, or ever will =
read, or=20
see. And of those who ever have read it, or ever will read it, scarcely =
any two,=20
perhaps no two, have ever agreed, or ever will agree, as to what it =
means.</P>
<P>Moreover, this supposed contract, which would not be received in any =
court of=20
justice sitting under its authority, if offered to prove a debt of five =
dollars,=20
owing by one man to another, is one by which --- as it is generally =
interpreted=20
by those who pretend to administer it --- all men, women and children =
throughout=20
the country, and through all time, surrender not only all their =
property, but=20
also their liberties, and even lives, into the hands of men who by this =
supposed=20
contract, are expressly made wholly irresponsible for their disposal of =
them.=20
And we are so insane, or so wicked, as to destroy property and lives =
without=20
limit, in fighting to compel men to fulfill a supposed contract, which, =
inasmuch=20
as it has never been signed by anybody, is, on general principles of law =
and=20
reason --- such principles as we are all governed by in regard to other=20
contracts --- the merest waste of paper, binding upon nobody, fit only =
to be=20
thrown into the fire; or, if preserved, preserved only to serve as a =
witness and=20
a warning of the folly and wickedness of mankind.</P>
<P>VI.</P>
<P>It is no exaggeration, but a literal truth, to say that, by the =
Constitution=20
--- not as I interpret it, but as it is interpreted by those [*23] who =
pretend=20
to administer it --- the properties, liberties, and lives of the entire =
people=20
of the United States are surrendered unreservedly into the hands of men =
who, it=20
is provided by the Constitution itself, shall never be "questioned" as =
to any=20
disposal they make of them.</P>
<P>Thus the Constitution (Art. I, Sec. 6) provides that, "for any speech =
or=20
debate [or vote,] in either house, they [the senators and =
representatives] shall=20
not be questioned in any other place."</P>
<P>The whole law-making power is given to these senators and =
representatives=20
[when acting by a two-thirds vote] <FN5>; and this provision protects =
them from=20
all responsibility for the laws they make.</FN5></P>
<P>The Constitution also enables them to secure the execution of all =
their laws,=20
by giving them power to withhold the salaries of, and to impeach and =
remove, all=20
judicial and executive officers, who refuse to execute them.</P>
<P>Thus the whole power of the government is in their hands, and they =
are made=20
utterly irresponsible for the use they make of it. What is this but =
absolute,=20
irresponsible power?</P>
<P>It is no answer to this view of the case to say that these men are =
under oath=20
to use their power only within certain limits; for what care they, or =
what=20
should they care, for oaths or limits, when it is expressly provided, by =
the=20
Constitution itself, that they shall never be "questioned," or held to =
any=20
responsibility whatever, for violating their oaths, or transgressing =
those=20
limits?</P>
<P>Neither is it any answer to this view of the case to say that the men =
holding=20
this absolute, irresponsible power, must be men chosen by the people (or =

portions of them) to hold it. A man is none the less a slave because he =
is=20
allowed to choose a new master once in a term of years. Neither are a =
people any=20
the less slaves because permitted periodically to choose new masters. =
What makes=20
them slaves is the fact that they now are, and are always hereafter to =
be, in=20
the hands of men whose power over them is, and always is to be, absolute =
and=20
irresponsible. <FN6>[*24]</FN6></P>
<P>The right of absolute and irresponsible dominion is the right of =
property,=20
and the right of property is the right of absolute, irresponsible =
dominion. The=20
two are identical; the one necessarily implies the other. Neither can =
exist=20
without the other. If, therefore, Congress have that absolute and =
irresponsible=20
law-making power, which the Constitution --- according to their =
interpretation=20
of it --- gives them, it can only be because they own us as property. If =
they=20
own us as property, they are our masters, and their will is our law. If =
they do=20
not own us as property, they are not our masters, and their will, as =
such, is of=20
no authority over us.</P>
<P>But these men who claim and exercise this absolute and irresponsible =
dominion=20
over us, dare not be consistent, and claim either to be our masters, or =
to own=20
us as property. They say they are only our servants, agents, attorneys, =
and=20
representatives. But this declaration involves an absurdity, a =
contradiction. No=20
man can be my servant, agent, attorney, or representative, and be, at =
the same=20
time, uncontrollable by me, and irresponsible to me for his acts. It is =
of no=20
importance that I appointed him, and put all power in his hands. If I =
made him=20
uncontrollable by me, and irresponsible to me, he is no longer my =
servant,=20
agent, attorney, or representative. If I gave him absolute, irre- [*25]=20
sponsible power over my property, I gave him the property. If I gave him =

absolute, irresponsible power over myself, I made him my master, and =
gave myself=20
to him as a slave. And it is of no importance whether I called him =
master or=20
servant, agent or owner. The only question is, what power did I put in =
his=20
hands? Was it an absolute and irresponsible one? or a limited and =
responsible=20
one?</P>
<P>For still another reason they are neither our servants, agents, =
attorneys,=20
nor representatives. And that reason is, that we do not make ourselves=20
responsible for their acts. If a man is my servant, agent, or attorney, =
I=20
necessarily make myself responsible for all his acts done within the =
limits of=20
the power I have intrusted to him. If I have intrusted him, as my agent, =
with=20
either absolute power, or any power at all, over the persons or =
properties of=20
other men than myself, I thereby necessarily make myself responsible to =
those=20
other persons for any injuries he may do them, so long as he acts within =
the=20
limits of the power I have granted him. But no individual who may be =
injured in=20
his person or property, by acts of Congress, can come to the individual=20
electors, and hold them responsible for these acts of their so-called =
agents or=20
representatives. This fact proves that these pretended agents of the =
people, of=20
everybody, are really the agents of nobody.</P>
<P>If, then, nobody is individually responsible for the acts of =
Congress, the=20
members of Congress are nobody's agents. And if they are nobody's =
agents, they=20
are themselves individually responsible for their own acts, and for the =
acts of=20
all whom they employ. And the authority they are exercising is simply =
their own=20
individual authority; and, by the law of nature --- the highest of all =
laws ---=20
anybody injured by their acts, anybody who is deprived by them of his =
property=20
or his liberty, has the same right to hold them individually =
responsible, that=20
he has to hold any other trespasser individually responsible. He has the =
same=20
right [*26] to resist them, and their agents, that he has to resist any =
other=20
trespassers.</P>
<P>VII.</P>
<P>It is plain, then, that on general principles of law and reason --- =
such=20
principles as we all act upon in courts of justice and in common life =
--- the=20
Constitution is no contract; that it binds nobody, and never did bind =
anybody;=20
and that all those who pretend to act by its authority, are really =
acting=20
without any legitimate authority at all; that, on general principles of =
law and=20
reason, they are mere usurpers, and that everybody not only has the =
right, but=20
is morally bound, to treat them as such.</P>
<P>If the people of this country wish to maintain such a government as =
the=20
Constitution describes, there is no reason in the world why they should =
not sign=20
the instrument itself, and thus make known their wishes in an open, =
authentic=20
manner; in such manner as the common sense and experience of mankind =
have shown=20
to be reasonable and necessary in such cases; and in such manner as to =
make=20
themselves (as they ought to do) individually responsible for the acts =
of the=20
government. But the people have never been asked to sign it. And the =
only reason=20
why they have never been asked to sign it, has been that it has been =
known that=20
they never would sign it; that they were neither such fools nor knaves =
as they=20
must needs have been to be willing to sign it; that (at least as it has =
been=20
practically interpreted) it is not what any sensible and honest man =
wants for=20
himself; nor such as he has any right to impose upon others. It is, to =
all moral=20
intents and purposes, as destitute of obligations as the compacts which =
robbers=20
and thieves and pirates enter into with each other, but never sign.</P>
<P>If any considerable number of the people believe the Constitution to =
be good,=20
why do they not sign it themselves, and make laws for, and administer =
them upon,=20
each other; leaving all [*27] other persons (who do not interfere with =
them) in=20
peace? Until they have tried the experiment for themselves, how can they =
have=20
the face to impose the Constitution upon, or even to recommend it to, =
others?=20
Plainly the reason for absurd and inconsistent conduct is that they want =
the=20
Constitution, not solely for any honest or legitimate use it can be of =
to=20
themselves or others, but for the dishonest and illegitimate power it =
gives them=20
over the persons and properties of others. But for this latter reason, =
all their=20
eulogiums on the Constitution, all their exhortations, and all their=20
expenditures of money and blood to sustain it, would be wanting.</P>
<P>VIII.</P>
<P>The Constitution itself, then, being of no authority, on what =
authority does=20
our government practically rest? On what ground can those who pretend to =

administer it, claim the right to seize men's property, to restrain them =
of=20
their natural liberty of action, industry, and trade, and to kill all =
who deny=20
their authority to dispose of men's properties, liberties, and lives at =
their=20
pleasure or discretion?</P>
<P>The most they can say, in answer to this question, is, that some =
half,=20
two-thirds, or three-fourths, of the male adults of the country have a =
tacit=20
understanding that they will maintain a government under the =
Constitution; that=20
they will select, by ballot, the persons to administer it; and that =
those=20
persons who may receive a majority, or a plurality, of their ballots, =
shall act=20
as their representatives, and administer the Constitution in their name, =
and by=20
their authority.</P>
<P>But this tacit understanding (admitting it to exist) cannot at all =
justify=20
the conclusion drawn from it. A tacit understanding between A, B, and C, =
that=20
they will, by ballot, depute D as their agent, to deprive me of my =
property,=20
liberty, or life, cannot at all authorize D to do so. He is none the =
less a=20
robber, tyrant, and murderer, because he claims to act as their agent, =
[*28]=20
than he would be if he avowedly acted on his own responsibility =
alone.</P>
<P>Neither am I bound to recognize him as their agent, nor can he =
legitimately=20
claim to be their agent, when he brings no written authority from them=20
accrediting him as such. I am under no obligation to take his word as to =
who his=20
principals may be, or whether he has any. Bringing no credentials, I =
have a=20
right to say he has no such authority even as he claims to have: and =
that he is=20
therefore intending to rob, enslave, or murder me on his own =
account.</P>
<P>This tacit understanding, therefore, among the voters of the country, =
amounts=20
to nothing as an authority to their agents. Neither do the ballots by =
which they=20
select their agents, avail any more than does their tacit understanding; =
for=20
their ballots are given in secret, and therefore in such a way as to =
avoid any=20
personal responsibility for the acts of their agents.</P>
<P>No body of men can be said to authorize a man to act as their agent, =
to the=20
injury of a third person, unless they do it in so open and authentic a =
manner as=20
to make themselves personally responsible for his acts. None of the =
voters in=20
this country appoint their political agents in any open, authentic =
manner, or in=20
any manner to make themselves responsible for their acts. Therefore =
these=20
pretended agents cannot legitimately claim to be really agents. Somebody =
must be=20
responsible for the acts of these pretended agents; and if they cannot =
show any=20
open and authentic credentials from their principals, they cannot, in =
law or=20
reason, be said to have any principals. The maxim applies here, that =
what does=20
not appear, does not exist. If they can show no principals, they have =
none.</P>
<P>But even these pretended agents do not themselves know who their =
pretended=20
principals are. These latter act in secret; for acting by secret ballot =
is=20
acting in secret as much as if they were to meet in secret conclave in =
the=20
darkness of the night. And they are personally as much unknown to the =
agents=20
they select, [*29] as they are to others. No pretended agent therefore =
can ever=20
know by whose ballots he is selected, or consequently who his real =
principles=20
are. Not knowing who his principles are, he has no right to say that he =
has any.=20
He can, at most, say only that he is the agent of a secret band of =
robbers and=20
murderers, who are bound by that faith which prevails among confederates =
in=20
crime, to stand by him, if his acts, done in their name, shall be =
resisted.</P>
<P>Men honestly engaged in attempting to establish justice in the world, =
have no=20
occasion thus to act in secret; or to appoint agents to do acts for =
which they=20
(the principals) are not willing to be responsible.</P>
<P>The secret ballot makes a secret government; and a secret government =
is a=20
secret band of robbers and murderers. Open despotism is better than =
this. The=20
single despot stands out in the face of all men, and says: I am the =
State: My=20
will is law: I am your master: I take the responsibility of my acts: The =
only=20
arbiter I acknowledge is the sword: If anyone denies my right, let him =
try=20
conclusions with me.</P>
<P>But a secret government is little less than a government of =
assassins. Under=20
it, a man knows not who his tyrants are, until they have struck, and =
perhaps not=20
then. He may guess, beforehand, as to some of his immediate neighbors. =
But he=20
really knows nothing. The man to whom he would most naturally fly for=20
protection, may prove an enemy, when the time of trial comes.</P>
<P>This is the kind of government we have; and it is the only one we are =
likely=20
to have, until men are ready to say: We will consent to no Constitution, =
except=20
such an one as we are neither ashamed nor afraid to sign; and we will =
authorize=20
no government to do anything in our name which we are not willing to be=20
personally responsible for. [*30]</P>
<P>IX.</P>
<P>What is the motive to the secret ballot? This, and only this: Like =
other=20
confederates in crime, those who use it are not friends, but enemies; =
and they=20
are afraid to be known, and to have their individual doings known, even =
to each=20
other. They can contrive to bring about a sufficient understanding to =
enable=20
them to act in concert against other persons; but beyond this they have =
no=20
confidence, and no friendship, among themselves. In fact, they are =
engaged quite=20
as much in schemes for plundering each other, as in plundering those who =
are not=20
of them. And it is perfectly well understood among them that the =
strongest party=20
among them will, in certain contingencies, murder each other by the =
hundreds of=20
thousands (as they lately did do) to accomplish their purposes against =
each=20
other. Hence they dare not be known, and have their individual doings =
known,=20
even to each other. And this is avowedly the only reason for the ballot: =
for a=20
secret government; a government by secret bands of robbers and =
murderers. And we=20
are insane enough to call this liberty! To be a member of this secret =
band of=20
robbers and murderers is esteemed a privilege and an honor! Without this =

privilege, a man is considered a slave; but with it a free man! With it =
he is=20
considered a free man, because he has the same power to secretly (by =
secret=20
ballot) procure the robbery, enslavement, and murder of another man, and =
that=20
other man has to procure his robbery, enslavement, and murder. And this =
they=20
call equal rights!</P>
<P>If any number of men, many or few, claim the right to govern the =
people of=20
this country, let them make and sign an open compact with each other to =
do so.=20
Let them thus make themselves individually known to those whom they =
propose to=20
govern. And let them thus openly take the legitimate responsibility of =
their=20
acts. How many of those who now support the Constitution, will ever do =
this? How=20
many will ever dare openly pro- [*31] claim their right to govern? or =
take the=20
legitimate responsibility of their acts? Not one!</P>
<P>X.</P>
<P>It is obvious that, on general principles of law and reason, there =
exists no=20
such thing as a government created by, or resting upon, any consent, =
compact, or=20
agreement of "the people of the United States" with each other; that the =
only=20
visible, tangible, responsible government that exists, is that of a few=20
individuals only, who act in concert, and call themselves by the several =
names=20
of senators, representatives, presidents, judges, marshals, treasurers,=20
collectors, generals, colonels, captains, etc., etc.</P>
<P>On general principles of law and reason, it is of no importance =
whatever that=20
these few individuals profess to be the agents and representatives of =
"the=20
people of the United States"; since they can show no credentials from =
the people=20
themselves; they were never appointed as agents or representatives in =
any open,=20
authentic manner; they do not themselves know, and have no means of =
knowing, and=20
cannot prove, who their principals (as they call them) are individually; =
and=20
consequently cannot, in law or reason, be said to have any principals at =

all.</P>
<P>It is obvious, too, that if these alleged principals ever did appoint =
these=20
pretended agents, or representatives, they appointed them secretly (by =
secret=20
ballot), and in a way to avoid all personal responsibility for their =
acts; that,=20
at most, these alleged principals put these pretended agents forward for =
the=20
most criminal purposes, viz.: to plunder the people of their property, =
and=20
restrain them of their liberty; and that the only authority that these =
alleged=20
principals have for so doing, is simply a tacit understanding among =
themselves=20
that they will imprison, shoot, or hang every man who resists the =
exactions and=20
restraints which their agents or representatives may impose upon =
them.</P>
<P>Thus it is obvious that the only visible, tangible government we =
[*32] have=20
is made up of these professed agents or representatives of a secret band =
of=20
robbers and murderers, who, to cover up, or gloss over, their robberies =
and=20
murders, have taken to themselves the title of "the people of the United =

States"; and who, on the pretense of being "the people of the United =
States,"=20
assert their right to subject to their dominion, and to control and =
dispose of=20
at their pleasure, all property and persons found in the United =
States.</P>
<P>XI.</P>
<P>On general principles of law and reason, the oaths which these =
pretended=20
agents of the people take "to support the Constitution," are of no =
validity or=20
obligation. And why? For this, if for no other reason, viz., that they =
are given=20
to nobody. There is no privity (as the lawyers say) --- that is, no =
mutual=20
recognition, consent, and agreement --- between those who take these =
oaths, and=20
any other persons.</P>
<P>If I go upon Boston Common, and in the presence of a hundred thousand =
people,=20
men, women and children, with whom I have no contract upon the subject, =
take an=20
oath that I will enforce upon them the laws of Moses, of Lycurgus, of =
Solon, of=20
Justinian, or of Alfred, that oath is, on general principles of law and =
reason,=20
of no obligation. It is of no obligation, not merely because it is =
intrinsically=20
a criminal one, but also because it is given to nobody, and consequently =
pledges=20
my faith to nobody. It is merely given to the winds.</P>
<P>It would not alter the case at all to say that, among these hundred =
thousand=20
persons, in whose presence the oath was taken, there were two, three, or =
five=20
thousand male adults, who had secretly --- by secret ballot, and in a =
way to=20
avoid making themselves individually known to me, or to the remainder of =
the=20
hundred thousand --- designated me as their agent to rule, control, =
plunder,=20
and, if need be, murder, these hundred thousand [*33] people. The fact =
that they=20
had designated me secretly, and in a manner to prevent my knowing them=20
individually, prevents all privity between them and me; and consequently =
makes=20
it impossible that there can be any contract, or pledge of faith, on my =
part=20
towards them; for it is impossible that I can pledge my faith, in any =
legal=20
sense, to a man whom I neither know, nor have any means of knowing,=20
individually.</P>
<P>So far as I am concerned, then, these two, three, or five thousand =
persons=20
are a secret band of robbers and murderers, who have secretly, and in a =
way to=20
save themselves from all responsibility for my acts, designated me as =
their=20
agent; and have, through some other agent, or pretended agent, made =
their wishes=20
known to me. But being, nevertheless, individually unknown to me, and =
having no=20
open, authentic contract with me, my oath is, on general principles of =
law and=20
reason, of no validity as a pledge of faith to them. And being no pledge =
of=20
faith to them, it is no pledge of faith to anybody. It is mere idle =
wind. At=20
most, it is only a pledge of faith to an unknown band of robbers and =
murderers,=20
whose instrument for plundering and murdering other people, I thus =
publicly=20
confess myself to be. And it has no other obligation than a similar oath =
given=20
to any other unknown body of pirates, robbers, and murderers. For these =
reasons=20
the oaths taken by members of Congress, "to support the Constitution," =
are, on=20
general principles of law and reason, of no validity. They are not only =
criminal=20
in themselves, and therefore void; but they are also void for the =
further reason=20
that they are given to nobody.</P>
<P>It cannot be said that, in any legitimate or legal sense, they are =
given to=20
"the people of the United States"; because neither the whole, nor any =
large=20
proportion of the whole, people of the United States ever, either openly =
or=20
secretly, appointed or designated these men as their agents to carry the =

Constitution into effect. The great body of the people --- that is, men, =
women,=20
and children --- were never asked, or even permitted, to signify, in any =
[*34]=20
formal manner, either openly or secretly, their choice or wish on the =
subject.=20
The most that these members of Congress can say, in favor of their =
appointment,=20
is simply this: Each one can say for himself:</P>
<P>I have evidence satisfactory to myself, that there exists, scattered=20
throughout the country, a band of men, having a tacit understanding with =
each=20
other, and calling themselves "the people of the United States," whose =
general=20
purposes are to control and plunder each other, and all other persons in =
the=20
country, and, so far as they can, even in neighboring countries; and to =
kill=20
every man who shall attempt to defend his person and property against =
their=20
schemes of plunder and dominion. Who these men are, individually, I have =
no=20
certain means of knowing, for they sign no papers, and give no open, =
authentic=20
evidence of their individual membership. They are not known individually =
even to=20
each other. They are apparently as much afraid of being individually =
known to=20
each other, as of being known to other persons. Hence they ordinarily =
have no=20
mode either of exercising, or of making known, their individual =
membership,=20
otherwise than by giving their votes secretly for certain agents to do =
their=20
will. But although these men are individually unknown, both to each =
other and to=20
other persons, it is generally understood in the country that none but =
male=20
persons, of the age of twenty-one years and upwards, can be members. It =
is also=20
generally understood that all male persons, born in the country, having =
certain=20
complexions, and (in some localities) certain amounts of property, and =
(in=20
certain cases) even persons of foreign birth, are permitted to be =
members. But=20
it appears that usually not more than one half, two-thirds, or in some =
cases,=20
three-fourths, of all who are thus permitted to become members of the =
band, ever=20
exercise, or consequently prove, their actual membership, in the only =
mode in=20
which they ordinarily can exercise or prove it, viz., by giving their =
votes=20
secretly for the officers or agents of the band. The number of these =
secret=20
[*35] votes, so far as we have any account of them, varies greatly from =
year to=20
year, thus tending to prove that the band, instead of being a permanent=20
organization, is a merely pro tempore affair with those who choose to =
act with=20
it for the time being. The gross number of these secret votes, or what =
purports=20
to be their gross number, in different localities, is occasionally =
published.=20
Whether these reports are accurate or not, we have no means of knowing. =
It is=20
generally supposed that great frauds are often committed in depositing =
them.=20
They are understood to be received and counted by certain men, who are=20
themselves appointed for that purpose by the same secret process by =
which all=20
other officers and agents of the band are selected. According to the =
reports of=20
these receivers of votes (for whose accuracy or honesty, however, I =
cannot=20
vouch), and according to my best knowledge of the whole number of male =
persons=20
"in my district," who (it is supposed) were permitted to vote, it would =
appear=20
that one-half, two-thirds or three-fourths actually did vote. Who the =
men were,=20
individually, who cast these votes, I have no knowledge, for the whole =
thing was=20
done secretly. But of the secret votes thus given for what they call a =
"member=20
of Congress," the receivers reported that I had a majority, or at least =
a larger=20
number than any other one person. And it is only by virtue of such a =
designation=20
that I am now here to act in concert with other persons similarly =
selected in=20
other parts of the country. It is understood among those who sent me =
here, that=20
all persons so selected, will, on coming together at the City of =
Washington,=20
take an oath in each other's presence "to support the Constitution of =
the United=20
States." By this is meant a certain paper that was drawn up eighty years =
ago. It=20
was never signed by anybody, and apparently has no obligation, and never =
had any=20
obligation, as a contract. In fact, few persons ever read it, and =
doubtless much=20
the largest number of those who voted for me and the others, never even =
saw it,=20
or now pretend to know what it means. Nevertheless, it is often spoken =
[*36] of=20
in the country as "the Constitution of the United States"; and for some =
reason=20
or other, the men who sent me here, seem to expect that I, and all with =
whom I=20
act, will swear to carry this Constitution into effect. I am therefore =
ready to=20
take this oath, and to co-operate with all others, similarly selected, =
who are=20
ready to take the same oath.</P>
<P>This is the most that any member of Congress can say in proof that he =
has any=20
constituency; that he represents anybody; that his oath "to support the=20
Constitution," is given to anybody, or pledges his faith to anybody. He =
has no=20
open, written, or other authentic evidence, such as is required in all =
other=20
cases, that he was ever appointed the agent or representative of =
anybody. He has=20
no written power of attorney from any single individual. He has no such =
legal=20
knowledge as is required in all other cases, by which he can identify a =
single=20
one of those who pretend to have appointed him to represent them.</P>
<P>Of course his oath, professedly given to them, "to support the =
Constitution,"=20
is, on general principles of law and reason, an oath given to nobody. It =
pledges=20
his faith to nobody. If he fails to fulfil his oath, not a single person =
can=20
come forward, and say to him, you have betrayed me, or broken faith with =
me.</P>
<P>No one can come forward and say to him: I appointed you my attorney =
to act=20
for me. I required you to swear that, as my attorney, you would support =
the=20
Constitution. You promised me that you would do so; and now you have =
forfeited=20
the oath you gave to me. No single individual can say this.</P>
<P>No open, avowed, or responsible association, or body of men, [*37] =
can come=20
forward and say to him: We appointed you our attorney, to act for us. We =

required you to swear that, as our attorney, you would support the =
Constitution.=20
You promised us that you would do so; and now you have forfeited the =
oath you=20
gave to us.</P>
<P>No open, avowed, or responsible association, or body of men, can say =
this to=20
him; because there is no such association or body of men in existence. =
If any=20
one should assert that there is such an association, let him prove, if =
he can,=20
who compose it. Let him produce, if he can, any open, written, or other=20
authentic contract, signed or agreed to by these men; forming themselves =
into an=20
association; making themselves known as such to the world; appointing =
him as=20
their agent; and making themselves individually, or as an association,=20
responsible for his acts, done by their authority. Until all this can be =
shown,=20
no one can say that, in any legitimate sense, there is any such =
association; or=20
that he is their agent; or that he ever gave his oath to them; or ever =
pledged=20
his faith to them.</P>
<P>On general principles of law and reason, it would be a sufficient =
answer for=20
him to say, to all individuals, and to all pretended associations of=20
individuals, who should accuse him of a breach of faith to them:</P>
<P>I never knew you. Where is your evidence that you, either =
individually or=20
collectively, ever appointed me your attorney? that you ever required me =
to=20
swear to you, that, as your attorney, I would support the Constitution? =
or that=20
I have now broken any faith that I ever pledged to you? You may, or you =
may not,=20
be members of that secret band of robbers and murderers, who act in =
secret;=20
appoint their agents by a secret ballot; who keep themselves =
individually=20
unknown even to the agents they thus appoint; and who, therefore, cannot =
claim=20
that they have any agents; or that any of their pretended agents ever =
gave his=20
oath, or pledged his faith to them. I repudiate you altogether. My oath =
was=20
given to others, with whom you have nothing to do; or it was idle wind, =
given=20
only to the idle winds. Begone!</P>
<P>XII.</P>
<P>For the same reasons, the oaths of all the other pretended agents of =
this=20
secret band of robbers and murderers are, on [*38] general principles of =
law and=20
reason, equally destitute of obligation. They are given to nobody; but =
only to=20
the winds.</P>
<P>The oaths of the tax-gatherers and treasurers of the band, are, on =
general=20
principles of law and reason, of no validity. If any tax-gatherer, for =
example,=20
should put the money he receives into his own pocket, and refuse to part =
with=20
it, the members of this band could not say to him: You collected that =
money as=20
our agent, and for our uses; and you swore to pay it over to us, or to =
those we=20
should appoint to receive it. You have betrayed us, and broken faith =
with=20
us.</P>
<P>It would be a sufficient answer for him to say to them:</P>
<P>I never knew you. You never made yourselves individually known to me. =
I never=20
game by oath to you, as individuals. You may, or you may not, be members =
of that=20
secret band, who appoint agents to rob and murder other people; but who =
are=20
cautious not to make themselves individually known, either to such =
agents, or to=20
those whom their agents are commissioned to rob. If you are members of =
that=20
band, you have given me no proof that you ever commissioned me to rob =
others for=20
your benefit. I never knew you, as individuals, and of course never =
promised you=20
that I would pay over to you the proceeds of my robberies. I committed =
my=20
robberies on my own account, and for my own profit. If you thought I was =
fool=20
enough to allow you to keep yourselves concealed, and use me as your =
tool for=20
robbing other persons; or that I would take all the personal risk of the =

robberies, and pay over the proceeds to you, you were particularly =
simple. As I=20
took all the risk of my robberies, I propose to take all the profits. =
Begone!=20
You are fools, as well as villains. If I gave my oath to anybody, I gave =
it to=20
other persons than you. But I really gave it to nobody. I only gave it =
to the=20
winds. It answered my purposes at the time. It enabled me to get the =
money I was=20
after, and now I propose to keep it. If you expected me to pay it over =
to you,=20
you relied only upon that honor [*39] that is said to prevail among =
thieves. You=20
now understand that that is a very poor reliance. I trust you may become =
wise=20
enough to never rely upon it again. If I have any duty in the matter, it =
is to=20
give back the money to those from whom I took it; not to pay it over to =
villains=20
such as you.</P>
<P>XIII.</P>
<P>On general principles of law and reason, the oaths which foreigners =
take, on=20
coming here, and being "naturalized" (as it is called), are of no =
validity. They=20
are necessarily given to nobody; because there is no open, authentic=20
association, to which they can join themselves; or to whom, as =
individuals, they=20
can pledge their faith. No such association, or organization, as "the =
people of=20
the United States," having ever been formed by any open, written, =
authentic, or=20
voluntary contract, there is, on general principles of law and reason, =
no such=20
association, or organization, in existence. And all oaths that purport =
to be=20
given to such an association are necessarily given only to the winds. =
They=20
cannot be said to be given to any man, or body of men, as individuals, =
because=20
no man, or body of men, can come forward with any proof that the oaths =
were=20
given to them, as individuals, or to any association of which they are =
members.=20
To say that there is a tacit understanding among a portion of the male =
adults of=20
the country, that they will call themselves "the people of the United =
States,"=20
and that they will act in concert in subjecting the remainder of the =
people of=20
the United States to their dominion; but that they will keep themselves=20
personally concealed by doing all their acts secretly, is wholly =
insufficient,=20
on general principles of law and reason, to prove the existence of any =
such=20
association, or organization, as "the people of the United States"; or=20
consequently to prove that the oaths of foreigners were given to any =
such=20
association. [*40]</P>
<P>XIV.</P>
<P>On general principles of law and reason, all the oaths which, since =
the war,=20
have been given by Southern men, that they will obey the laws of =
Congress,=20
support the Union, and the like, are of no validity. Such oaths are =
invalid, not=20
only because they were extorted by military power, and threats of =
confiscation,=20
and because they are in contravention of men's natural right to do as =
they=20
please about supporting the government, but also because they were given =
to=20
nobody. They were nominally given to "the United States." But being =
nominally=20
given to "the United States," they were necessarily given to nobody, =
because, on=20
general principles of law and reason, there were no "United States," to =
whom the=20
oaths could be given. That is to say, there was no open, authentic, =
avowed,=20
legitimate association, corporation, or body of men, known as "the =
United=20
States," or as "the people of the United States," to whom the oaths =
could have=20
been given. If anybody says there was such a corporation, let him state =
who were=20
the individuals that composed it, and how and when they became a =
corporation.=20
Were Mr. A, Mr. B, and Mr. C members of it? If so, where are their =
signatures?=20
Where the evidence of their membership? Where the record? Where the =
open,=20
authentic proof? There is none. Therefore, in law and reason, there was =
no such=20
corporation.</P>
<P>On general principles of law and reason, every corporation, =
association, or=20
organized body of men, having a legitimate corporate existence, and =
legitimate=20
corporate rights, must consist of certain known individuals, who can =
prove, by=20
legitimate and reasonable evidence, their membership. But nothing of =
this kind=20
can be proved in regard to the corporation, or body of men, who call =
themselves=20
"the United States." Not a man of them, in all the Northern States, can =
prove by=20
any legitimate evidence, such as is required to prove membership in =
other legal=20
corporations, that he himself, or any other man whom he can name, is =
[*41] a=20
member of any corporation or association called "the United States," or =
"the=20
people of the United States," or, consequently, that there is any such=20
corporation. And since no such corporation can be proved to exist, it =
cannot of=20
course be proved that the oaths of Southern men were given to any such=20
corporation. The most that can be claimed is that the oaths were given =
to a=20
secret band of robbers and murderers, who called themselves "the United =
States,"=20
and extorted those oaths. But that is certainly not enough to prove that =
the=20
oaths are of any obligation.</P>
<P>XV.</P>
<P>On general principles of law and reason, the oaths of soldiers, that =
they=20
will serve a given number of years, that they will obey the the orders =
of their=20
superior officers, that they will bear true allegiance to the =
government, and so=20
forth, are of no obligation. Independently of the criminality of an =
oath, that,=20
for a given number of years, he will kill all whom he may be commanded =
to kill,=20
without exercising his own judgment or conscience as to the justice or =
necessity=20
of such killing, there is this further reason why a soldier's oath is of =
no=20
obligation, viz., that, like all the other oaths that have now been =
mentioned,=20
it is given to nobody. There being, in no legitimate sense, any such=20
corporation, or nation, as "the United States," nor, consequently, in =
any=20
legitimate sense, any such government as "the government of the United =
States,"=20
a soldier's oath given to, or contract made with, such a nation or =
government,=20
is necessarily an oath given to, or contract made with, nobody. =
Consequently=20
such an oath or contract can be of no obligation.</P>
<P>XVI.</P>
<P>On general principles of law and reason, the treaties, so called, =
which=20
purport to be entered into with other nations, [*42] by persons calling=20
themselves ambassadors, secretaries, presidents, and senators of the =
United=20
States, in the name, and in behalf, of "the people of the United =
States," are of=20
no validity. These so-called ambassadors, secretaries, presidents, and =
senators,=20
who claim to be the agents of "the people of the United States" for =
making these=20
treaties, can show no open, written, or other authentic evidence that =
either the=20
whole "people of the United States," or any other open, avowed, =
responsible body=20
of men, calling themselves by that name, ever authorized these pretended =

ambassadors and others to make treaties in the name of, or binding upon =
any one=20
of, "the people of the United States," or any other open, avowed, =
responsible=20
body of men, calling themselves by that name, ever authorized these =
pretended=20
ambassadors, secretaries, and others, in their name and behalf, to =
recognize=20
certain other persons, calling themselves emperors, kings, queens, and =
the like,=20
as the rightful rulers, sovereigns, masters, or representatives of the =
different=20
peoples whom they assume to govern, to represent, and to bind.</P>
<P>The "nations," as they are called, with whom our pretended =
ambassadors,=20
secretaries, presidents, and senators profess to make treaties, are as =
much=20
myths as our own. On general principles of law and reason, there are no =
such=20
"nations." That is to say, neither the whole people of England, for =
example, nor=20
any open, avowed, responsible body of men, calling themselves by that =
name,=20
ever, by any open, written, or other authentic contract with each other, =
formed=20
themselves into any bona fide, legitimate association or organization, =
or=20
authorized any king, queen, or other representative to make treaties in =
their=20
name, or to bind them, either individually, or as an association, by =
such=20
treaties.</P>
<P>Our pretended treaties, then, being made with no legitimate or bona =
fide=20
nations, or representatives of nations, and being [*43] made, on our =
part, by=20
persons who have no legitimate authority to act for us, have =
intrinsically no=20
more validity than a pretended treaty made by the Man in the Moon with =
the king=20
of the Pleiades.</P>
<P>XVII.</P>
<P>On general principles of law and reason, debts contracted in the name =
of "the=20
United States," or of "the people of the United States," are of no =
validity. It=20
is utterly absurd to pretend that debts to the amount of twenty-five =
hundred=20
millions of dollars are binding upon thirty-five or forty millions of =
people,=20
when there is not a particle of legitimate evidence --- such as would be =

required to prove a private debt --- that can be produced against any =
one of=20
them, that either he, or his properly authorized attorney, ever =
contracted to=20
pay one cent.</P>
<P>Certainly, neither the whole people of the United States, nor any =
number of=20
them, ever separately or individually contracted to pay a cent of these=20
debts.</P>
<P>Certainly, also, neither the whole people of the United States, nor =
any=20
number of them, every, by any open, written, or other authentic and =
voluntary=20
contract, united themselves as a firm, corporation, or association, by =
the name=20
of "the United States," or "the people of the United States," and =
authorized=20
their agents to contract debts in their name.</P>
<P>Certainly, too, there is in existence no such firm, corporation, or=20
association as "the United States," or "the people of the United =
States," formed=20
by any open, written, or other authentic and voluntary contract, and =
having=20
corporate property with which to pay these debts.</P>
<P>How, then, is it possible, on any general principle of law or reason, =
that=20
debts that are binding upon nobody individually, can be binding upon =
forty=20
millions of people collectively, when, on general and legitimate =
principles of=20
law and reason, these [*43] forty millions of people neither have, nor =
ever had,=20
any corporate property? never made any corporate or individual contract? =
and=20
neither have, nor ever had, any corporate existence?</P>
<P>Who, then, created these debts, in the name of "the United States"? =
Why, at=20
most, only a few persons, calling themselves "members of Congress," =
etc., who=20
pretended to represent "the people of the United States," but who really =

represented only a secret band of robbers and murderers, who wanted =
money to=20
carry on the robberies and murders in which they were then engaged; and =
who=20
intended to extort from the future people of the United States, by =
robbery and=20
threats of murder (and real murder, if that should prove necessary), the =
means=20
to pay these debts.</P>
<P>This band of robbers and murderers, who were the real principals in=20
contracting these debts, is a secret one, because its members have never =
entered=20
into any open, written, avowed, or authentic contract, by which they may =
be=20
individually known to the world, or even to each other. Their real or =
pretended=20
representatives, who contracted these debts in their name, were selected =
(if=20
selected at all) for that purpose secretly (by secret ballot), and in a =
way to=20
furnish evidence against none of the principals individually; and these=20
principals were really known individually neither to their pretended=20
representatives who contracted these debts in their behalf, nor to those =
who=20
lent the money. The money, therefore, was all borrowed and lent in the =
dark;=20
that is, by men who did not see each other's faces, or know each other's =
names;=20
who could not then, and cannot now, identify each other as principals in =
the=20
transactions; and who consequently can prove no contract with each =
other.</P>
<P>Furthermore, the money was all lent and borrowed for criminal =
purposes; that=20
is, for purposes of robbery and murder; and for this reason the =
contracts were=20
all intrinsically void; and would have been so, even though the real =
parties,=20
borrowers and [*45] lenders, had come face to face, and made their =
contracts=20
openly, in their own proper names.</P>
<P>Furthermore, this secret band of robbers and murderers, who were the =
real=20
borrowers of this money, having no legitimate corporate existence, have =
no=20
corporate property with which to pay these debts. They do indeed pretend =
to own=20
large tracts of wild lands, lying between the Atlantic and Pacific =
Oceans, and=20
between the Gulf of Mexico and the North Pole. But, on general =
principles of law=20
and reason, they might as well pretend to own the Atlantic and Pacific =
Oceans=20
themselves; or the atmosphere and the sunlight; and to hold them, and =
dispose of=20
them, for the payment of these debts.</P>
<P>Having no corporate property with which to pay what purports to be =
their=20
corporate debts, this secret band of robbers and murderers are really =
bankrupt.=20
They have nothing to pay with. In fact, they do not propose to pay their =
debts=20
otherwise than from the proceeds of their future robberies and murders. =
These=20
are confessedly their sole reliance; and were known to be such by the =
lenders of=20
the money, at the time the money was lent. And it was, therefore, =
virtually a=20
part of the contract, that the money should be repaid only from the =
proceeds of=20
these future robberies and murders. For this reason, if for no other, =
the=20
contracts were void from the beginning.</P>
<P>In fact, these apparently two classes, borrowers and lenders, were =
really one=20
and the same class. They borrowed and lent money from and to themselves. =
They=20
themselves were not only part and parcel, but the very life and soul, of =
this=20
secret band of robbers and murderers, who borrowed and spent the money.=20
Individually they furnished money for a common enterprise; taking, in =
return,=20
what purported to be corporate promises for individual loans. The only =
excuse=20
they had for taking these so-called corporate promises of, for =
individual loans=20
by, the same parties, was that they might have some apparent excuse for =
the=20
future robberies of the band (that is, to pay the debts of [*46] the=20
corporation), and that they might also know what shares they were to be=20
respectively entitled to out of the proceeds of their future =
robberies.</P>
<P>Finally, if these debts had been created for the most innocent and =
honest=20
purposes, and in the most open and honest manner, by the real parties to =
the=20
contracts, these parties could thereby have bound nobody but themselves, =
and no=20
property but their own. They could have bound nobody that should have =
come after=20
them, and no property subsequently created by, or belonging to, other=20
persons.</P>
<P>XVIII.</P>
<P>The Constitution having never been signed by anybody; and there being =
no=20
other open, written, or authentic contract between any parties whatever, =
by=20
virtue of which the United States government, so called, is maintained; =
and it=20
being well known that none but male persons, of twenty-one years of age =
and=20
upwards, are allowed any voice in the government; and it being also well =
known=20
that a large number of these adult persons seldom or never vote at all; =
and that=20
all those who do vote, do so secretly (by secret ballot), and in a way =
to=20
prevent their individual votes being known, either to the world, or even =
to each=20
other; and consequently in a way to make no one openly responsible for =
the acts=20
of their agents, or representatives, --- all these things being known, =
the=20
questions arise: Who compose the real governing power in the country? =
Who are=20
the men, the responsible men, who rob us of our property? Restrain us of =
our=20
liberty? Subject us to their arbitrary dominion? And devastate our =
homes, and=20
shoot us down by the hundreds of thousands, if we resist? How shall we =
find=20
these men? How shall we know them from others? How shall we defend =
ourselves and=20
our property against them? Who, of our neighbors, are members of this =
secret=20
band of robbers and murderers? How [*47] can we know which are their =
houses,=20
that we may burn or demolish them? Which their property, that we may =
destroy it?=20
Which their persons, that we may kill them, and rid the world and =
ourselves of=20
such tyrants and monsters?</P>
<P>These are questions that must be answered, before men can be free; =
before=20
they can protect themselves against this secret band of robbers and =
murderers,=20
who now plunder, enslave, and destroy them.</P>
<P>The answer to these questions is, that only those who have the will =
and power=20
to shoot down their fellow men, are the real rulers in this, as in all =
other=20
(so-called) civilized countries; for by no others will civilized men be =
robbed,=20
or enslaved.</P>
<P>Among savages, mere physical strength, on the part of one man, may =
enable him=20
to rob, enslave, or kill another man. Among barbarians, mere physical =
strength,=20
on the part of a body of men, disciplined, and acting in concert, though =
with=20
very little money or other wealth, may, under some circumstances, enable =
them to=20
rob, enslave, or kill another body of men, as numerous, or perhaps even =
more=20
numerous, than themselves. And among both savages and barbarians, mere =
want may=20
sometimes compel one man to sell himself as a slave to another. But with =

(so-called) civilized peoples, among whom knowledge, wealth, and the =
means of=20
acting in concert, have become diffused; and who have invented such =
weapons and=20
other means of defense as to render mere physical strength of less =
importance;=20
and by whom soldiers in any requisite number, and other =
instrumentalities of war=20
in any requisite amount, can always be had for money, the question of =
war, and=20
consequently the question of power, is little else than a mere question =
of=20
money. As a necessary consequence, those who stand ready to furnish this =
money,=20
are the real rulers. It is so in Europe, and it is so in this =
country.</P>
<P>In Europe, the nominal rulers, the emperors and kings and =
parliaments, are=20
anything but the real rulers of their respective countries. They are =
little or=20
nothing else than mere tools, em- [*48] ployed by the wealthy to rob, =
enslave,=20
and (if need be) murder those who have less wealth, or none at all.</P>
<P>The Rothschilds, and that class of money-lenders of whom they are the =

representatives and agents --- men who never think of lending a shilling =
to=20
their next-door neighbors, for purposes of honest industry, unless upon =
the most=20
ample security, and at the highest rate of interest --- stand ready, at =
all=20
times, to lend money in unlimited amounts to those robbers and =
murderers, who=20
call themselves governments, to be expended in shooting down those who =
do not=20
submit quietly to being robbed and enslaved.</P>
<P>They lend their money in this manner, knowing that it is to be =
expended in=20
murdering their fellow men, for simply seeking their liberty and their =
rights;=20
knowing also that neither the interest nor the principal will ever be =
paid,=20
except as it will be extorted under terror of the repetition of such =
murders as=20
those for which the money lent is to be expended.</P>
<P>These money-lenders, the Rothschilds, for example, say to themselves: =
If we=20
lend a hundred millions sterling to the queen and parliament of England, =
it will=20
enable them to murder twenty, fifty, or a hundred thousand people in =
England,=20
Ireland, or India; and the terror inspired by such wholesale slaughter, =
will=20
enable them to keep the whole people of those countries in subjection =
for=20
twenty, or perhaps fifty, years to come; to control all their trade and=20
industry; and to extort from them large amounts of money, under the name =
of=20
taxes; and from the wealth thus extorted from them, they (the queen and=20
parliament) can afford to pay us a higher rate of interest for our money =
than we=20
can get in any other way. Or, if we lend this sum to the emperor of =
Austria, it=20
will enable him to murder so many of his people as to strike terror into =
the=20
rest, and thus enable him to keep them in subjection, and extort money =
from=20
them, for twenty or fifty years to come. And they say the same in regard =
to the=20
emperor of Russia, the king of Prussia, the emperor of France, [*49] or =
any=20
other ruler, so called, who, in their judgment, will be able, by =
murdering a=20
reasonable portion of his people, to keep the rest in subjection, and =
extort=20
money from them, for a long time to come, to pay the interest and the =
principal=20
of the money lent him.</P>
<P>And why are these men so ready to lend money for murdering their =
fellow men?=20
Soley for this reason, viz., that such loans are considered better =
investments=20
than loans for purposes of honest industry. They pay higher rates of =
interest;=20
and it is less trouble to look after them. This is the whole matter.</P>
<P>The question of making these loans is, with these lenders, a mere =
question of=20
pecuniary profit. They lend money to be expended in robbing, enslaving, =
and=20
murdering their fellow men, solely because, on the whole, such loans pay =
better=20
than any others. They are no respecters of persons, no superstitious =
fools, that=20
reverence monarchs. They care no more for a king, or an emperor, than =
they do=20
for a beggar, except as he is a better customer, and can pay them better =

interest for their money. If they doubt his ability to make his murders=20
successful for maintaining his power, and thus extorting money from his =
people=20
in future, they dismiss him unceremoniously as they would dismiss any =
other=20
hopeless bankrupt, who should want to borrow money to save himself from =
open=20
insolvency.</P>
<P>When these great lenders of blood-money, like the Rothschilds, have =
loaned=20
vast sums in this way, for purposes of murder, to an emperor or a king, =
they=20
sell out the bonds taken by them, in small amounts, to anybody, and =
everybody,=20
who are disposed to buy them at satisfactory prices, to hold as =
investments.=20
They (the Rothschilds) thus soon get back their money, with great =
profits; and=20
are now ready to lend money in the same way again to any other robber =
and=20
murderer, called an emperor or king, who, they think, is likely to be =
successful=20
in his robberies and murders, and able to pay a good price for the money =

necessary to carry them on. [*50]</P>
<P>This business of lending blood-money is one of the most thoroughly =
sordid,=20
cold-blooded, and criminal that was ever carried on, to any considerable =
extent,=20
amongst human beings. It is like lending money to slave traders, or to =
common=20
robbers and pirates, to be repaid out of their plunder. And the men who =
loan=20
money to governments, so called, for the purpose of enabling the latter =
to rob,=20
enslave, and murder their people, are among the greatest villains that =
the world=20
has ever seen. And they as much deserve to be hunted and killed (if they =
cannot=20
otherwise be got rid of) as any slave traders, robbers, or pirates that =
ever=20
lived.</P>
<P>When these emperors and kings, so-called, have obtained their loans, =
they=20
proceed to hire and train immense numbers of professional murderers, =
called=20
soldiers, and employ them in shooting down all who resist their demands =
for=20
money. In fact, most of them keep large bodies of these murderers =
constantly in=20
their service, as their only means of enforcing their extortions. There =
are now,=20
I think, four or five millions of these professional murderers =
constantly=20
employed by the so-called sovereigns of Europe. The enslaved people are, =
of=20
course, forced to support and pay all these murderers, as well as to =
submit to=20
all the other extortions which these murderers are employed to =
enforce.</P>
<P>It is only in this way that most of the so-called governments of =
Europe are=20
maintained. These so-called governments are in reality only great bands =
of=20
robbers and murderers, organized, disciplined, and constantly on the =
alert. And=20
the so-called sovereigns, in these different governments, are simply the =
heads,=20
or chiefs, of different bands of robbers and murderers. And these heads =
or=20
chiefs are dependent upon the lenders of blood-money for the means to =
carry on=20
their robberies and murders. They could not sustain themselves a moment =
but for=20
the loans made to them by these blood-money loan-mongers. And their =
first care=20
is to maintain their credit with them; for they know [*51] their end is =
come,=20
the instant their credit with them fails. Consequently the first =
proceeds of=20
their extortions are scrupulously applied to the payment of the interest =
on=20
their loans.</P>
<P>In addition to paying the interest on their bonds, they perhaps grant =
to the=20
holders of them great monopolies in banking, like the Banks of England, =
of=20
France, and of Vienna; with the agreement that these banks shall furnish =
money=20
whenever, in sudden emergencies, it may be necessary to shoot down more =
of their=20
people. Perhaps also, by means of tariffs on competing imports, they =
give great=20
monopolies to certain branches of industry, in which these lenders of=20
blood-money are engaged. They also, by unequal taxation, exempt wholly =
or=20
partially the property of these loan-mongers, and throw corresponding =
burdens=20
upon those who are too poor and weak to resist.</P>
<P>Thus it is evident that all these men, who call themselves by the=20
high-sounding names of Emperors, Kings, Sovereigns, Monarchs, Most =
Christian=20
Majesties, Most Catholic Majesties, High Mightinesses, Most Serene and =
Potent=20
Princes, and the like, and who claim to rule "by the grace of God," by =
"Divine=20
Right" --- that is, by special authority from Heaven --- are =
intrinsically not=20
only the merest miscreants and wretches, engaged solely in plundering,=20
enslaving, and murdering their fellow men, but that they are also the =
merest=20
hangers on, the servile, obsequious, fawning dependents and tools of =
these=20
blood-money loan-mongers, on whom they rely for the means to carry on =
their=20
crimes. These loan-mongers, like the Rothschilds, laugh in their =
sleeves, and=20
say to themselves: These despicable creatures, who call themselves =
emperors, and=20
kings, and majesties, and most serene and potent princes; who profess to =
wear=20
crowns, and sit on thrones; who deck themselves with ribbons, and =
feathers, and=20
jewels; and surround themselves with hired flatterers and lickspittles; =
and whom=20
we suffer to strut around, and palm themselves off, upon fools and =
slaves, as=20
sovereigns and lawgivers specially appointed by Almighty God; and to =
hold them-=20
[*52] selves out as the sole fountains of honors, and dignities, and =
wealth, and=20
power --- all these miscreants and imposters know that we make them, and =
use=20
them; that in us they live, move, and have their being; that we require =
them (as=20
the price of their positions) to take upon themselves all the labor, all =
the=20
danger, and all the odium of all the crimes they commit for our profit; =
and that=20
we will unmake them, strip them of their gewgaws, and send them out into =
the=20
world as beggars, or give them over to the vengeance of the people they =
have=20
enslaved, the moment they refuse to commit any crime we require of them, =
or to=20
pay over to us such share of the proceeds of their robberies as we see =
fit to=20
demand.</P>
<P>XIX.</P>
<P>Now, what is true in Europe, is substantially true in this country. =
The=20
difference is the immaterial one, that, in this country, there is no =
visible,=20
permanent head, or chief, of these robbers and murderers who call =
themselves=20
"the government." That is to say, there is no one man, who calls himself =
the=20
state, or even emperor, king, or sovereign; no one who claims that he =
and his=20
children rule "by the Grace of God," by "Divine Right," or by special=20
appointment from Heaven. There are only certain men, who call themselves =

presidents, senators, and representatives, and claim to be the =
authorized=20
agents, for the time being, or for certain short periods, of all "the =
people of=20
the United States"; but who can show no credentials, or powers of =
attorney, or=20
any other open, authentic evidence that they are so; and who notoriously =
are not=20
so; but are really only the agents of a secret band of robbers and =
murderers,=20
whom they themselves do not know, and have no means of knowing, =
individually;=20
but who, they trust, will openly or secretly, when the crisis comes, =
sustain=20
them in all their usurpations and crimes.</P>
<P>What is important to be noticed is, that these so-called presidents,=20
senators, and representatives, these pretended agents of all "the people =
of the=20
United States," the moment their exactions [*53] meet with any =
formidable=20
resistance from any portion of "the people" themselves, are obliged, =
like their=20
co-robbers and murderers in Europe, to fly at once to the lenders of =
blood=20
money, for the means to sustain their power. And they borrow their money =
on the=20
same principle, and for the same purpose, viz., to be expended in =
shooting down=20
all those "people of the United States" --- their own constituents and=20
principals, as they profess to call them --- who resist the robberies =
and=20
enslavements which these borrowers of the money are practising upon =
them. And=20
they expect to repay the loans, if at all, only from the proceeds of the =
future=20
robberies, which they anticipate it will be easy for them and their =
successors=20
to perpetrate through a long series of years, upon their pretended =
principals,=20
if they can but shoot down now some hundreds of thousands of them, and =
thus=20
strike terror into the rest.</P>
<P>Perhaps the facts were never made more evident, in any country on the =
globe,=20
than in our own, that these soulless blood-money loan-mongers are the =
real=20
rulers; that they rule from the most sordid and mercenary motives; that =
the=20
ostensible government, the presidents, senators, and representatives, so =
called,=20
are merely their tools; and that no ideas of, or regard for, justice or =
liberty=20
had anything to do in inducing them to lend their money for the war. In =
proof of=20
all this, look at the following facts.</P>
<P>Nearly a hundred years ago we professed to have got rid of all that =
religious=20
superstition, inculcated by a servile and corrupt priesthood in Europe, =
that=20
rulers, so called, derived their authority directly from Heaven; and =
that it was=20
consequently a religious duty on the part of the people to obey them. We =

professed long ago to have learned that governments could rightfully =
exist only=20
by the free will, and on the voluntary support, of those who might =
choose to=20
sustain them. We all professed to have known long ago, that the only =
legitimate=20
objects of government were the maintenance of liberty and justice =
equally for=20
all. All this [*54] we had professed for nearly a hundred years. And we=20
professed to look with pity and contempt upon those ignorant, =
superstitious, and=20
enslaved peoples of Europe, who were so easily kept in subjection by the =
frauds=20
and force of priests and kings.</P>
<P>Notwithstanding all this, that we had learned, and known, and =
professed, for=20
nearly a century, these lenders of blood money had, for a long series of =
years=20
previous to the war, been the willing accomplices of the slave-holders =
in=20
perverting the government from the purposes of liberty and justice, to =
the=20
greatest of crimes. They had been such accomplices for a purely =
pecuniary=20
consideration, to wit, a control of the markets in the South; in other =
words,=20
the privilege of holding the slave-holders themselves in industrial and=20
commercial subjection to the manufacturers and merchants of the North =
(who=20
afterwards furnished the money for the war). And these Northern =
merchants and=20
manufacturers, these lenders of blood-money, were willing to continue to =
be the=20
accomplices of the slave-holders in the future, for the same pecuniary=20
considerations. But the slave-holders, either doubting the fidelity of =
their=20
Northern allies, or feeling themselves strong enough to keep their =
slaves in=20
subjection without Northern assistance, would no longer pay the price =
which=20
these Northern men demanded. And it was to enforce this price in the =
future ---=20
that is, to monopolize the Southern markets, to maintain their =
industrial and=20
commercial control over the South --- that these Northern manufacturers =
and=20
merchants lent some of the profits of their former monopolies for the =
war, in=20
order to secure to themselves the same, or greater, monopolies in the =
future.=20
These --- and not any love of liberty or justice --- were the motives on =
which=20
the money for the war was lent by the North. In short, the North said to =
the=20
slave-holders: If you will not pay us our price (give us control of your =

markets) for our assistance against your slaves, we will secure the same =
price=20
(keep control of your markets) by helping your slaves against you, and =
using=20
them as our tools for main- [*55] taining dominion over you; for the =
control of=20
your markets we will have, whether the tools we use for that purpose be =
black or=20
white, and be the cost, in blood and money, what it may.</P>
<P>On this principle, and from this motive, and not from any love of =
liberty, or=20
justice, the money was lent in enormous amounts, and at enormous rates =
of=20
interest. And it was only by means of these loans that the objects of =
the war=20
were accomplished.</P>
<P>And now these lenders of blood-money demand their pay; and the =
government, so=20
called, becomes their tool, their servile, slavish, villanous tool, to =
extort it=20
from the labor of the enslaved people both of the North and South. It is =
to be=20
extorted by every form of direct, and indirect, and unequal taxation. =
Not only=20
the nominal debt and interest --- enormous as the latter was --- are to =
be paid=20
in full; but these holders of the debt are to be paid still further --- =
and=20
perhaps doubly, triply, or quadruply paid --- by such tariffs on imports =
as will=20
enable our home manufacturers to realize enormous prices for their =
commodities;=20
also by such monopolies in banking as will enable them to keep control =
of, and=20
thus enslave and plunder, the industry and trade of the great body of =
the=20
Northern people themselves. In short, the industrial and commercial =
slavery of=20
the great body of the people, North and South, black and white, is the =
price=20
which these lenders of blood money demand, and insist upon, and are =
determined=20
to secure, in return for the money lent for the war.</P>
<P>This programme having been fully arranged and systematized, they put =
their=20
sword into the hands of the chief murderer of the war, and charge him to =
carry=20
their scheme into effect. And now he, speaking as their organ, says, =
"Let us=20
have peace."</P>
<P>The meaning of this is: Submit quietly to all the robbery and slavery =
we have=20
arranged for you, and you can have "peace." But in case you resist, the =
same=20
lenders of blood-money, who furnished the means to subdue the South, =
will=20
furnish the means again to subdue you. [*56]</P>
<P>These are the terms on which alone this government, or, with few =
exceptions,=20
any other, ever gives "peace" to its people.</P>
<P>The whole affair, on the part of those who furnished the money, has =
been, and=20
now is, a deliberate scheme of robbery and murder; not merely to =
monopolize the=20
markets of the South, but also to monopolize the currency, and thus =
control the=20
industry and trade, and thus plunder and enslave the laborers, of both =
North and=20
South. And Congress and the president are today the merest tools for =
these=20
purposes. They are obliged to be, for they know that their own power, as =
rulers,=20
so-called, is at an end, the moment their credit with the blood-money=20
loan-mongers fails. They are like a bankrupt in the hands of an =
extortioner.=20
They dare not say nay to any demand made upon them. And to hide at once, =
if=20
possible, both their servility and crimes, they attempt to divert public =

attention, by crying out that they have "Abolished Slavery!" That they =
have=20
"Saved the Country!" That they have "Preserved our Glorious Union!" and =
that, in=20
now paying the "National Debt," as they call it (as if the people =
themselves,=20
all of them who are to be taxed for its payment, had really and =
voluntarily=20
joined in contracting it), they are simply "Maintaining the National =
Honor!"</P>
<P>By "maintaining the national honor," they mean simply that they =
themselves,=20
open robbers and murderers, assume to be the nation, and will keep faith =
with=20
those who lend them the money necessary to enable them to crush the =
great body=20
of the people under their feet; and will faithfully appropriate, from =
the=20
proceeds of their future robberies and murders, enough to pay all their =
loans,=20
principal and interest.</P>
<P>The pretense that the "abolition of slavery" was either a motive or=20
justification for the war, is a fraud of the same character with that of =

"maintaining the national honor." Who, but such usurpers, robbers, and =
murderers=20
as they, ever established slavery? Or what government, except one =
resting upon=20
[*57] the sword, like the one we now have, was ever capable of =
maintaining=20
slavery? And why did these men abolish slavery? Not from any love of =
liberty in=20
general --- not as an act of justice to the black man himself, but only =
"as a=20
war measure," and because they wanted his assistance, and that of his =
friends,=20
in carrying on the war they had undertaken for maintaining and =
intensifying that=20
political, commercial, and industrial slavery, to which they have =
subjected the=20
great body of the people, both black and white. And yet these imposters =
now cry=20
out that they have abolished the chattel slavery of the black man --- =
although=20
that was not the motive of the war --- as if they thought they could =
thereby=20
conceal, atone for, or justify that other slavery which they were =
fighting to=20
perpetuate, and to render more rigorous and inexorable than it ever was =
before.=20
There was no difference of principle --- but only of degree --- between =
the=20
slavery they boast they have abolished, and the slavery they were =
fighting to=20
preserve; for all restraints upon men's natural liberty, not necessary =
for the=20
simple maintenance of justice, are of the nature of slavery, and differ =
from=20
each other only in degree.</P>
<P>If their object had really been to abolish slavery, or maintain =
liberty or=20
justice generally, they had only to say: All, whether white or black, =
who want=20
the protection of this government, shall have it; and all who do not =
want it,=20
will be left in peace, so long as they leave us in peace. Had they said =
this,=20
slavery would necessarily have been abolished at once; the war would =
have been=20
saved; and a thousand times nobler union than we have ever had would =
have been=20
the result. It would have been a voluntary union of free men; such a =
union as=20
will one day exist among all men, the world over, if the several =
nations, so=20
called, shall ever get rid of the usurpers, robbers, and murderers, =
called=20
governments, that now plunder, enslave, and destroy them.</P>
<P>Still another of the frauds of these men is, that they are now [*58]=20
establishing, and that the war was designed to establish, "a government =
of=20
consent." The only idea they have ever manifested as to what is a =
government of=20
consent, is this --- that it is one to which everybody must consent, or =
be shot.=20
This idea was the dominant one on which the war was carried on; and it =
is the=20
dominant one, now that we have got what is called "peace."</P>
<P>Their pretenses that they have "Saved the Country," and "Preserved =
our=20
Glorious Union," are frauds like all the rest of their pretenses. By =
them they=20
mean simply that they have subjugated, and maintained their power over, =
an=20
unwilling people. This they call "Saving the Country"; as if an enslaved =
and=20
subjugated people --- or as if any people kept in subjection by the =
sword (as it=20
is intended that all of us shall be hereafter) --- could be said to have =
any=20
country. This, too, they call "Preserving our Glorious Union"; as if =
there could=20
be said to be any Union, glorious or inglorious, that was not voluntary. =
Or as=20
if there could be said to be any union between masters and slaves; =
between those=20
who conquer, and those who are subjugated. All these cries of having =
"abolished=20
slavery," of having "saved the country," of having "preserved the =
union," of=20
establishing "a government of consent," and of "maintaining the national =
honor,"=20
are all gross, shameless, transparent cheats --- so transparent that =
they ought=20
to deceive no one --- when uttered as justifications for the war, or for =
the=20
government that has succeeded the war, or for now compelling the people =
to pay=20
the cost of the war, or for compelling anybody to support a government =
that he=20
does not want.</P>
<P>The lesson taught by all these facts is this: As long as mankind =
continue to=20
pay "National Debts," so-called --- that is, so long as they are such =
dupes and=20
cowards as to pay for being cheated, plundered, enslaved, and murdered =
--- so=20
long there will be enough to lend the money for those purposes; and with =
that=20
[*59] money a plenty of tools, called soldiers, can be hired to keep =
them in=20
subjection. But when they refuse any longer to pay for being thus =
cheated,=20
plundered, enslaved, and murdered, they will cease to have cheats, and =
usurpers,=20
and robbers, and murderers and blood-money loan-mongers for masters.</P>
<P>APPENDIX.</P>
<P>Inasmuch as the Constitution was never signed, nor agreed to, by =
anybody, as=20
a contract, and therefore never bound anybody, and is now binding upon =
nobody;=20
and is, moreover, such an one as no people can ever hereafter be =
expected to=20
consent to, except as they may be forced to do so at the point of the =
bayonet,=20
it is perhaps of no importance what its true legal meaning, as a =
contract, is.=20
Nevertheless, the writer thinks it proper to say that, in his opinion, =
the=20
Constitution is no such instrument as it has generally been assumed to =
be; but=20
that by false interpretations, and naked usurpations, the government has =
been=20
made in practice a very widely, and almost wholly, different thing from =
what the=20
Constitution itself purports to authorize. He has heretofore written =
much, and=20
could write much more, to prove that such is the truth. But whether the=20
Constitution really be one thing, or another, this much is certain --- =
that it=20
has either authorized such a government as we have had, or has been =
powerless to=20
prevent it. In either case, it is unfit to exist.</P>
<P>NOTES</P>
<P><FN1>See "No Treason, No. 2" pages 5 and 6.</FN1></P>
<P><FN2>Suppose it be "the best government on earth," does that prove =
its own=20
goodness, or only the badness of all other governments?</FN2></P>
<P><FN3>The very men who drafted it, never signed it in any way to bind=20
themselves by it, as a contract. And not one of them probably ever would =
have=20
signed it in any way to bind himself by it, as a contract.</FN3></P>
<P><FN4>I have personally examined the statute books of the following =
States,=20
viz.: Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, =
Connecticut,=20
New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Virginia, North Carolina, =
South=20
Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, =
Ohio,=20
Michagan, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Texas, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, =

Minnesota, Nebraska, Kansas, Nveada, California, and Oregon, and find =
that in=20
all these States the English statute has been re-enacted, sometimes with =

modifications, but generally enlarging its operations, and is now in=20
force.</FN4></P>
<P>The following are some of the provisions of the Massachusetts =
statute:</P>
<P>"No action shall be brought in any of the following cases, that is to =

say:</P>
<P>. . . .</P>
<P>"To charge a person upon a special promise to answer for a debt, =
default, or=20
misdoings of another: . . . .</P>
<P>"Upon a contract for the sale of lands, tenements, hereditaments, or =
of any=20
interest in, or concerning them; or</P>
<P>"Upon an agreement that is not to be performed within one year from =
the=20
writing thereof:</P>
<P>"Unless the promise, contract, or agreement, upon which such action =
is=20
broughtm or some memorandum or note thereof, is in writing, and signed =
by the=20
party to be charged therewith, or by some person thereunto by him =
lawfully=20
authorized: . . . .</P>
<P>"No contract for the sale of goods, wares, or merchandise, for the =
price of=20
fifty dollars or more, shall be good and valid, unless the purchaser =
accepts and=20
receives part of the goods so sold, or gives something in earnest to =
bind the=20
bargain, or in part payment; or unless some note or memorandum in =
writing of the=20
bargain is made and signed by the party to be charged thereby, or by =
some person=20
thereunto by him lawfully authorized."</P>
<P><FN5>And this two-thirds vote may be but two-thirds of a quorum --- =
that is=20
two-thirds of a majority --- instead of two-thirds of the =
whole.</FN5></P>
<P><FN6>Of what appreciable value is it to any man, as an individual, =
that he is=20
allowed a voice in choosing these public masters? His voice is only one =
of=20
several millions.</FN6></P>
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------=_NextPart_000_0000_01CAE9F4.FBA5A770
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------=_NextPart_000_0000_01CAE9F4.FBA5A770
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------=_NextPart_000_0000_01CAE9F4.FBA5A770
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#primary .singlepage #forum UL.links LI.forum {
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#forum .links {
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}
#primary IMG.sticky {
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}
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#page TABLE#attachments TR TD {
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}
#page .poll {
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.pool .text {
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#page .poll .choices {
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}
*:first-child + HTML FIELDSET {
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}
*:first-child + HTML FIELDSET > .description {
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}
*:first-child + HTML FIELDSET .fieldset-wrapper .description {
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}
FIELDSET LEGEND {
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*:first-child + HTML FIELDSET.collapsed LEGEND {
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HTML.js FIELDSET.collapsible {
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HTML.js FIELDSET.collapsed {
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PADDING-TOP: 15px
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------=_NextPart_000_0000_01CAE9F4.FBA5A770
Content-Type: application/octet-stream
Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable
Content-Location: http://lysanderspooner.org/themes/marinelli/graphics.css?w

BODY {
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}
#page {
	BORDER-BOTTOM: #054b81 12px solid; BORDER-LEFT: #054b81 12px solid; =
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IMG {
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#submenu {
	BACKGROUND: url(img/slinks.gif) #ff9900 repeat-x 50% top; COLOR: #fff
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#primary #sitemission P {
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#ccc 0px solid; BORDER-RIGHT: #ccc 0px solid
}
#footer {
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}
#footer IMG {
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LIST-STYLE-IMAGE: none
}
.comment UL LI {
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LIST-STYLE-IMAGE: none
}
#primary .singlepage .node .content .views-admin-links UL LI {
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0%; LIST-STYLE-IMAGE: none
}
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0%; LIST-STYLE-IMAGE: none
}
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0%; LIST-STYLE-IMAGE: none
}
#primary .singlepage .view-og-ghp-ron .node .terms-inline UL LI {
	LIST-STYLE-TYPE: none; BACKGROUND: none transparent scroll repeat 0% =
0%; LIST-STYLE-IMAGE: none
}
#primary .singlepage .node .content OL LI {
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}
.rsidebar UL.menu LI {
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0.4em; LIST-STYLE-IMAGE: none
}
.rsidebar .item-list UL LI {
	LIST-STYLE-TYPE: none; BACKGROUND: url(img/leaf.gif) no-repeat 2px =
0.4em; LIST-STYLE-IMAGE: none
}
.rsidebar LI.leaf {
	LIST-STYLE-TYPE: none; BACKGROUND: url(img/leaf.gif) no-repeat 2px =
0.4em; LIST-STYLE-IMAGE: none
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.lsidebar UL.menu LI {
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0.4em; LIST-STYLE-IMAGE: none
}
.lsidebar .item-list UL LI {
	LIST-STYLE-TYPE: none; BACKGROUND: url(img/leaf.gif) no-repeat 2px =
0.4em; LIST-STYLE-IMAGE: none
}
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	LIST-STYLE-TYPE: none; BACKGROUND: url(img/leaf.gif) no-repeat 2px =
0.4em; LIST-STYLE-IMAGE: none
}
#user-login-form UL LI {
	BACKGROUND: url(img/collapsed.gif) no-repeat 2px 1px
}
UL.inline LI {
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}
#primary .node TABLE TR TD {
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BORDER-TOP: #e2e2e2 1px solid; BORDER-RIGHT: #e2e2e2 1px solid
}
THEAD TH {
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}
TR.even {
	BACKGROUND-COLOR: #d1dee6
}
TR.odd {
	BACKGROUND-COLOR: #ededed
}
TD.region {
	BORDER-BOTTOM: #aaaaaa 1px solid; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #cdd6de; COLOR: =
#455067; BORDER-TOP: #fff 1.5em solid
}
TD.module {
	BORDER-BOTTOM: #aaaaaa 1px solid; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #cdd6de; COLOR: =
#455067; BORDER-TOP: #fff 1.5em solid
}
TD.container {
	BORDER-BOTTOM: #aaaaaa 1px solid; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #cdd6de; COLOR: =
#455067; BORDER-TOP: #fff 1.5em solid
}
TD.menu-disabled {
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}
TD.menu-disabled A {
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}
HR {
	BORDER-BOTTOM: medium none; BORDER-LEFT: medium none; BACKGROUND: =
#5294c1; BORDER-TOP: medium none; BORDER-RIGHT: medium none
}
DL DT {
	BACKGROUND: url(img/square.gif) no-repeat 0px 1px
}
SPAN.form-required {
	COLOR: #ffae00
}
.form-item UL LI {
	LIST-STYLE-TYPE: none; LIST-STYLE-IMAGE: none
}
.fieldset UL LI {
	LIST-STYLE-TYPE: none; LIST-STYLE-IMAGE: none
}
FIELDSET UL.clear-block LI {
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}
#primary .content BLOCKQUOTE {
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BACKGROUND-COLOR: #eeeeee; COLOR: #666; BORDER-TOP: #ccc 1px solid; =
BORDER-RIGHT: #ccc 1px solid
}
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BACKGROUND-COLOR: #faf6d9; BORDER-TOP: #e7e3c4 4px dashed; BORDER-RIGHT: =
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}
DIV.admin-panel {
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#primary .messages UL LI {
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}
#primary .messages .status {
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}
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BACKGROUND-COLOR: #ffffcc; BORDER-TOP: #ffcc00 1px solid; BORDER-RIGHT: =
#ffcc00 1px solid
}
#primary .help .help UL LI {
	LIST-STYLE-TYPE: none; BACKGROUND: url(img/lista.gif) no-repeat 0px =
7px; LIST-STYLE-IMAGE: none
}
#primary .admin-dependencies {
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}
#primary .admin-required {
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}
#primary CODE {
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}
.comment {
	BORDER-BOTTOM: #ccc 1px solid; BORDER-LEFT: #ccc 1px solid; =
BACKGROUND-COLOR: #ededed; BORDER-TOP: #ccc 1px solid; BORDER-RIGHT: =
#ccc 1px solid
}
#comments .odd {
	BORDER-BOTTOM: #bdd8f4 1px solid; BORDER-LEFT: #bdd8f4 1px solid; =
BACKGROUND: #f0f3f8; BORDER-TOP: #bdd8f4 1px solid; BORDER-RIGHT: =
#bdd8f4 1px solid
}
.comment-new .commentTitle A {
	PADDING-RIGHT: 28px; BACKGROUND: url(img/new.gif) no-repeat right 4px
}
.comment .links UL LI {
	LIST-STYLE-TYPE: none; BACKGROUND: none transparent scroll repeat 0% =
0%; LIST-STYLE-IMAGE: none
}
.comment .links LI.comment_delete {
	BACKGROUND: url(img/commentdelete.gif) no-repeat
}
.comment .links LI.comment_edit {
	BACKGROUND: url(img/commentedit.gif) no-repeat
}
.comment .links LI.comment_reply {
	BACKGROUND: url(img/commentadd.gif) no-repeat
}
#primary .links LI.comment_forbidden {
	BACKGROUND: url(img/lock.gif) no-repeat
}
#primary .links LI.comment_comments {
	BACKGROUND: url(img/comments.gif) no-repeat
}
#primary .view-og-ghp-ron .node .links LI.comment_comments {
	BACKGROUND: url(img/comments.gif) no-repeat
}
#primary .links LI.blog_usernames_blog first {
	BACKGROUND: url(img/blog.gif) no-repeat
}
.links LI.comment_add {
	BACKGROUND: url(img/comment_add.gif) no-repeat
}
#primary .view-og-ghp-ron .node .links .comment_add {
	BACKGROUND: url(img/comment_add.gif) no-repeat
}
.links .node_read_more {
	BACKGROUND: url(img/readmore.gif) no-repeat
}
#primary .view-og-ghp-ron .node .links .node_read_more {
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}
.taxonomy {
	BORDER-TOP: #eee 4px solid
}
.taxonomy SPAN {
	BACKGROUND: url(img/tags.gif) no-repeat
}
P SPAN.tagsteaser {
	BACKGROUND: url(img/tags.gif) no-repeat; COLOR: #24365c
}
.preview .node .taxonomy UL LI SPAN {
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}
.linksteaser {
	BORDER-BOTTOM: #ccc 1px dashed
}
.metanode SPAN.author {
	BACKGROUND: url(img/user.gif) no-repeat
}
.submitted A {
	BACKGROUND: url(img/user.gif) no-repeat
}
.metanode SPAN.date {
	BACKGROUND: url(img/clock.gif) no-repeat 2px 0px
}
.item-list .pager LI.pager-current {
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}
.picture IMG {
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}
.picture A:hover IMG {
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}
.firma {
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}
.odd .firma {
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}
#primary .singlepage #forum UL.links LI.forum {
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}
.singlepage #forum TABLE TR.even {
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}
.singlepage #forum TABLE TR TD.container {
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}
.profile H3 {
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}
.book-navigation {
	BACKGROUND: #eee
}
.forum-topic-navigation {
	BACKGROUND: #eee
}
#page .poll .bar .foreground {
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}
.links .book_printer {
	BACKGROUND: url(img/print.gif) no-repeat
}
.links .book_add_child {
	BACKGROUND: url(img/add.gif) no-repeat
}
#primary .content .book-navigation .menu LI {
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0px; LIST-STYLE-IMAGE: none
}
#primary .singlepage .search-results DT {
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}
#primary .singlepage .search-results P STRONG {
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}
.hide {
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}
FIELDSET {
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}
*:first-child + HTML FIELDSET {
	BACKGROUND-COLOR: transparent; BACKGROUND-POSITION: 0px 0.65em
}
FIELDSET UL.clear-block LI {
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}
.feedcontainer .feedcontent {
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}
#primary .singlepage .feedsummary {
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}
#primary .singlepage #aggregator LI {
	LIST-STYLE-TYPE: square; BACKGROUND: none transparent scroll repeat 0% =
0%
}
.terminfo {
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}
.og-mission {
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}
#primary .terminfo P {
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}
.og-mission {
	COLOR: #666600
}
.form-submit {
	BORDER-BOTTOM: #ccc 3px double; BORDER-LEFT: #ccc 3px double; =
BACKGROUND: #005a8c; COLOR: #fff; BORDER-TOP: #ccc 3px double; =
BORDER-RIGHT: #ccc 3px double
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------=_NextPart_000_0000_01CAE9F4.FBA5A770
Content-Type: application/octet-stream
Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable
Content-Location: http://lysanderspooner.org/themes/marinelli/typography.css?w

BODY {
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"Lucida Sans Unicode", helvetica, verdana, arial, sans-serif; =
LETTER-SPACING: normal; FONT-SIZE: 76%
}
#page {
	TEXT-ALIGN: left
}
#submenu {
	TEXT-ALIGN: left; LETTER-SPACING: 1px; FONT-SIZE: 1em
}
.path P SPAN {
	TEXT-TRANSFORM: uppercase; FONT: bold 0.75em Georgia, "Times New =
Roman", Times, serif
}
#primary .singlepage .path P {
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}
#primary .singlepage P {
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.defaultblock .blockcontent {
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#header H1 {
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#header P.sitetitle {
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FONT-WEIGHT: lighter
}
#header P.slogan {
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serif; LETTER-SPACING: -0.3px; FONT-SIZE: 1.4em; FONT-WEIGHT: lighter
}
#header H1 {
	FONT-FAMILY: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif
}
#header P {
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#utilities INPUT.form-submit {
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#utilities INPUT.form-text {
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}
#utilities #plinks {
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}
#primary #sitemission P {
	TEXT-ALIGN: center; LINE-HEIGHT: 120%; FONT-STYLE: italic; FONT-FAMILY: =
Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; FONT-SIZE: 1.7em
}
.loginblock {
	FONT-SIZE: 1em
}
FORM#user-login-form {
	TEXT-ALIGN: left; LINE-HEIGHT: 0.9em
}
.defaultblock H2 {
	TEXT-TRANSFORM: uppercase; FONT: bold 1em Georgia, "Times New Roman", =
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}
.loginblock H2 {
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}
#primary .singlepage H1 {
	TEXT-ALIGN: left; TEXT-TRANSFORM: none; FONT-FAMILY: Georgia, "Times =
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}
#primary .singlepage H2 {
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New Roman", Times, serif; LETTER-SPACING: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: lighter
}
#primary .singlepage H3 {
	TEXT-ALIGN: left; TEXT-TRANSFORM: none; FONT-FAMILY: Georgia, "Times =
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}
#primary .singlepage H4 {
	TEXT-ALIGN: left; TEXT-TRANSFORM: none; FONT-FAMILY: Georgia, "Times =
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}
#primary .singlepage H5 {
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New Roman", Times, serif; LETTER-SPACING: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: lighter
}
#primary .singlepage H6 {
	TEXT-ALIGN: left; TEXT-TRANSFORM: none; FONT-FAMILY: Georgia, "Times =
New Roman", Times, serif; LETTER-SPACING: 0px; FONT-WEIGHT: lighter
}
#primary .singlepage H2.nodeTitle A {
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}
#primary .singlepage H1 {
	LINE-HEIGHT: 1.2em; FONT-SIZE: 2.1em
}
#primary .singlepage H2 {
	LINE-HEIGHT: 1.2em; FONT-SIZE: 1.7em
}
#primary .singlepage H3 {
	LINE-HEIGHT: 1.2em; FONT-SIZE: 1.4em
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